Forest structure and biomass of mangroves in the Mgeni estuary,South Africa

Forest structure and biomass were determined in a mangrove stand dominated by Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. Trees in 5 m² sample plots were harvested at ground level and then further cut into 1 m strata for separation into living wood, dead wood, leaves, reproductive material and pneumatophores. Mean above-ground living biomass was calculated at 94.49±7.83 t dry matter ha^–1, while dead wood contributed a mean mass of 7.63±0.89 t dry matter ha^–1. Excavations of roots yielded a below-ground biomass of 9.67 t dry matter ha^–1 which represented only 9.8% of the above-ground value. There was a mean density of 4700 living stems ha^–1 with plant heights ranging from 0.57 m to 5.80 m. Mean LAI was 4.95±0.80. As a basis for estimating standing biomass, regression lines were fitted to biomass values from individual trees of B. gymnorrhiza and Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. of various sizes. A comparison of these relationships with methods used by previous workers for estimating biomass suggests that most other methods cannot be applied without modification for local stands of mangroves.     

Subtidal macrozoobenthic community resilience to change following natural mouth breaching of the temporarily open/closed East Kleinemonde Estuary,South Africa

The East Kleinemonde Estuary, on the south-east coast of South Africa, typically opens for only short periods, usually <10 days. During a nine-month study in 2006, marine influence persisted for a near-continuous period of three months. This provided an opportunity to explore potential changes in the structure and pattern of the subtidal estuarine macrozoobenthic community. Salinity changes were minimal after mouth opening, decreasing by c. 4 and 8 in the lower and upper estuary, respectively. Salinity decrease was due to river dominance over tidal influence. Two biotic assemblages, structured by sediment characteristics, typified the community throughout the study: a sand-associated group near the mouth and a mud-associated group upstream. Amphipods were proportionally the most abundant group within each assemblage and on each sampling occasion. At the species level, high variability typified the community, with no trends or patterns observed. However, species richness declined from 27–30 to 23 after mouth opening. The number of species returned to former levels at the time of the final survey and just before final mouth closure. An analysis of the subtidal macrozoobenthos in the East Kleinemonde and other temporarily open/closed estuaries (TOCEs) of similar size in the bioregion indicated that communities were typically composed of relatively few, broadly tolerant euryhaline species with no species unique to TOCEs.     

Intra- and interspecific facilitation in mangroves may increase resilience to climate change threats

Mangroves are intertidal ecosystems that are particularly vulnerable to climate change. At the low tidal limits of their range, they face swamping by rising sea levels; at the high tidal limits, they face increasing stress from desiccation and high salinity. Facilitation theory may help guide mangrove management and restoration in the face of these threats by suggesting how and when positive intra- and interspecific effects may occur: such effects are predicted in stressed environments such as the intertidal, but have yet to be shown among mangroves. Here, we report the results of a series of experiments at low and high tidal sites examining the effects of mangrove density and species mix on seedling survival and recruitment, and on the ability of mangroves to trap sediment and cause surface elevation change. Increasing density significantly increased the survival of seedlings of two different species at both high and low tidal sites, and enhanced sediment accretion and elevation at the low tidal site. Including Avicennia marina in species mixes enhanced total biomass at a degraded high tidal site. Increasing biomass led to changed microenvironments that allowed the recruitment and survival of different mangrove species, particularly Ceriops tagal.     

闽江河口短叶茳芏群落湿地沉积物反硝化强度对盐度的响应

为了探讨河口区湿地沉积物反硝化强度对盐度的响应,2015年7月选择闽江河口覆盖短叶茳芏的鳝鱼滩和道庆洲湿地沉积物为研究对象,采用密封厌氧培养,计算不同培养时期在不同盐度下的反硝化速率。结果表明,在反硝化培养的初期,鳝鱼滩的反硝化速率从低盐度到高盐度分别为(15.5±1.38)、(4.28±8.46)、(12.94±0.24)mg kg~(-1)d~(-1),道庆洲分别为(31.93±4.89)、(30.66±5.375)、(36.69±3.44)mg kg~(-1)d~(-1),鳝鱼滩的10天反硝化速率在0和10盐度下降幅度分别是5天的36.97%、53.01%,高于道庆洲22.64%、28.84%,后期随着时间的变化整体上呈现减小的趋势并趋于0。另外,鳝鱼滩和道庆洲反硝化活性随着时间呈现逐渐增加的趋势,其鳝鱼滩变化幅度在95.6%—99.8%,道庆洲为90.0%—96.7%,整个培养期间,鳝鱼滩的反硝化活性均高于道庆洲的反硝化活性。以上结果反映出盐度对闽江河口湿地沉积物的反硝化速率起到一定的抑制作用。     

Genetics and shell morphometrics of assimineids (Mollusca,Caenogastropoda, Truncatelloidea) in the St Lucia Estuary,South Africa

The Assimineidae are a family of amphibious microgastropods that can be mostly found in estuaries and mangroves in South Africa. These snails often occur in great numbers and are ecologically important to the St Lucia Estuary, which forms a crucial part of the iSimangaliso Wetland Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Genetic and shell morphometric analyses were conducted on individuals collected from nine localities distributed from the northern lake regions to the southern lake and the mouth of the St Lucia estuarine lake. Mitochondrial (COI) and nuclear (28S) DNA was used to construct Bayesian Inference, Neighbour-joining, Maximum Parsimony and Maximum Likelihood trees. Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis were performed on standard shell parameter data. Results indicate that two different taxa are present in St Lucia. The taxon comprising individuals from the South Lake and St Lucia Estuary Mouth is identified as Assiminea cf. capensis Bartsch, in accordance with the latest taxonomic consensus. The taxon comprising assimineid individuals from False Bay, North Lake and South Lake, is here tentatively named “Assiminea” aff. capensis (Sowerby). These two taxa exhibit patterns of spatial overlap that appear to vary depending on environmental parameters, particularly salinity. The need to resolve the complex taxonomy of assimineids is highlighted.     

The Nutrient Status of Mgazana,a Warm Temperate Mangrove Estuary in the Transkei,Eastern Cape,South Africa

Mgazana, a rural southern African mangrove system, was visited monthly from August, 1995 to February, 1997 to collect water samples for nutrient analysis. Surface and bottom samples were taken during spring low tide at seven stations along the estuary and the following physico-chemical parameters measured: river flow, temperature, salinity, oxygen, transparency, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, inorganic carbon (IC), organic carbon (OC), total carbon (TC), soluble nitrogen (SN), particulate nitrogen (PN) and total nitrogen (TN). Using correlation matrix analysis and ANOVA, river flow was found to affect estuarine salinity, transparency and stratification, which influenced nutrient dynamics. Significant seasonal (winter and summer) differences were found for temperature, river flow, nitrate, SN, TN, IC and OC. Most nutrients were significantly correlated with river flow showing gradients down the estuary, indicating allochthonous input from the catchment. OC levels within the estuary were high, probably due to autochthonous mangrove leaf-fall processing by the various in-fauna, but high levels measured at the head of the estuary during high river flow suggested additional allochthonous input from coastal forest litter. Conversely, IC was negatively correlated with river flow suggesting that autochthonous faunal and microbial mineralisation of organic matter occurs within creeks, which is then diluted by increased stream-flow. An N:P ratio of 2.7:1 was obtained for this rural mangrove system, which was low compared with Spartina-based East Cape estuaries subject to urban, industrial and agricultural pollution.     

Ethnobotanical plant uses in the KwaNibela Peninsula, St Lucia, South Africa

Ethnobotanical field studies were conducted for the first time in the KwaNibela Peninsula of southern Maputaland, KwaZulu-Natal, to document indigenous knowledge about useful plants. The vernacular names and uses of 82 plant species were recorded and compared to published Zulu and Swazi knowledge. Medicines for skin disorders, toothache, wounds, worms, chest and throat ailments, infertility and purgatives are still commonly used. Superstition and divination play a major role in the traditional knowledge system of the people of KwaNibela with 24 plants used for this purpose. Three KwaNibela medicinal plants (Erythroxylum delagoense, Putterlickia verrucosa, and Teclea natalensis) appear to be new records, not previously reported in the general scientific literature. The list also includes 61 novel uses of plants and another 15 new variations on known (published) uses. Ten previously unpublished vernacular names are presented, together with an additional 19 new variants of known names. These new additions to the scientific literature confirm that indigenous knowledge in KwaZulu-Natal is not yet completely recorded.     

福建漳江口红树林湿地沉积物中四种重金属的空间分布特征

对漳江口红树林湿地沉积物中4种重金属(Pb、Cd、Ni、Fe)含量空间分布的研究表明,漳江口红树林湿地沉积物中Pb、Fe含量较高,Cd、Ni含量相对较低;林内沉积物的Pb、Cd含量显著高于林外沉积物;在垂岸方向上,表层沉积物中除Ni外其它三种元素含量均表现出从林外到林内增加的趋势;在垂直梯度上,四种元素含量均随着沉积物深度增加而逐渐降低。     

Temperature and salinity tolerance of Mesopodopsis africana O. Tattersall in the freshwater-deprived St. Lucia Estuary, South Africa

Mesopodopsis africana is a key species in the St. Lucia Estuary, Africa's largest estuarine lake. This system is currently undergoing an unprecedented crisis due to freshwater deprivation. A reversed salinity gradient has persisted with hypersaline conditions (> 300) occurring in the upper regions of the estuarine lake. In the context of climate change, rising temperatures will not only push the thermal tolerance limits of estuarine organisms, but increased evaporation from this lake's large surface area will lead to further salinity increases. The present study aims to determine the temperature and salinity tolerance of M. africana, both through in situ studies and the use of laboratory experiments. Results indicate that M. africana is a broad euryhaline species. Mysids were recorded at salinity levels ranging from 2.55 to 64.5 in situ. While experiments revealed a narrower salinity tolerance, acclimation resulted in a significant increase in the tolerance range of this species. It is probable, however, that slower acclimation times may increase survival rates even further, particularly in the higher salinity treatments. M. africana was especially tolerant of the lower salinity levels. In the 20 °C acclimation experiment, LS₅₀ at 1 and 2.5 was only reached after 8 and > 168 h, respectively. Survival at 10 and 40 °C was negligible at all salinity levels. This concurs with field results which documented mysids at temperatures ranging from 16.2 to 30.9 °C. Salinity and temperature increases associated with global climate change may, therefore, have significant implications for these mysid populations, with cascading effects on the higher trophic levels which they support.     

Development of a halotolerant community in the St. Lucia Estuary (South Africa) during a hypersaline phase

Background

The St. Lucia Estuary, Africa''s largest estuarine lake, is currently experiencing unprecedented freshwater deprivation which has resulted in a northward gradient of drought effects, with hypersaline conditions in its northern lakes.

Methodology/Principal Findings

This study documents the changes that occurred in the biotic communities at False Bay from May 2010 to June 2011, in order to better understand ecosystem functioning in hypersaline habitats. Few zooplankton taxa were able to withstand the harsh environmental conditions during 2010. These were the flatworm Macrostomum sp., the harpacticoid copepod Cletocamptus confluens, the cyclopoid copepod Apocyclops cf. dengizicus and the ciliate Fabrea cf. salina. In addition to their exceptional salinity tolerance, they were involved in a remarkably simple food web. In June 2009, a bloom of an orange-pigmented cyanobacterium (Cyanothece sp.) was recorded in False Bay and persisted uninterruptedly for 18 months. Stable isotope analysis suggests that this cyanobacterium was the main prey item of F. cf. salina. This ciliate was then consumed by A. cf. dengizicus, which in turn was presumably consumed by flamingos as they flocked in the area when the copepods attained swarming densities. On the shore, cyanobacteria mats contributed to a population explosion of the staphylinid beetle Bledius pilicollis. Although zooplankton disappeared once salinities exceeded 130, many taxa are capable of producing spores or resting cysts to bridge harsh periods. The hypersaline community was disrupted by heavy summer rains in 2011, which alleviated drought conditions and resulted in a sharp increase in zooplankton stock and diversity.

Conclusions/Significance

Despite the current freshwater deprivation crisis, the False Bay region has shown to be resilient, harboring a unique biodiversity with species that are capable of enduring harsh environmental conditions. However, further freshwater deprivation may extend beyond the physiological thresholds of this community, as well as other unique biodiversity components which this system sustains.     

In situ feeding rates and grazing impact of Mesopodopsis africana O. Tattersall in the St Lucia Estuary, South Africa

Mesopodopsis africana is an important mysid in southern African coastal zooplankton and a key species in the St Lucia estuarine lake, which is currently undergoing severe desiccation owing to freshwater deprivation. M. africana populations through much of the system are consequently under severe environmental stress. This study investigates the grazing dynamics of this mysid species, in relation to autotrophic food availability and other environmental constraints in two contrasting areas of the St Lucia Estuary, Charters Creek, heavily affected by the desiccation process and the Mouth, virtually under unchanged conditions. Gut evacuation experiments were conducted once each during the day and the night. Evacuation rates were consistently higher during the night, ranging from 0.27 to 0.33 h^-1 at Charters Creek and from 1.13 to 1.24 h^-1 at the Mouth. Ingestion rates were, therefore, higher at the Mouth resulting in population grazing impacts of 2.5% of the total microalgal biomass, while the grazing impact at Charters Creek was only 0.5%. The spatial variation in ingestion rates could be attributed to seasonal differences in gut evacuation rates, differences in the mean size of mysids used, or the physicochemical conditions present at the two stations. It is suggested that mysid populations at Charters Creek are predominantly driven by bottom-up forces, initiated by the harsh environmental conditions. Despite the lower ingestion rates exhibited at Charters Creek, results indicate that these mysids are capable of meeting all their energetic requirements from a microalgal diet alone, although they may also utilise a heterotrophic diet.     

Aspects of population dynamics and feeding by piscivorous birds in the intermittently open Riet River estuary,Eastern Cape,South Africa

Aspects of the population dynamics and feeding activity of piscivorous birds in the small (c. 5 ha) intermittently open Riet River estuary, on the south-eastern coastline of South Africa, were investigated monthly from August 2005 to July 2006. A total of 188 birds of 13 species were recorded, of which six were wading piscivores, four aerial divers and three were pursuit swimmers. The Reed Cormorant (Phalacrocorax africanus) was the numerically dominant species, with a mean of 8.25 (SD ± 7.90) individuals per count. Mean numbers of the Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis) and Giant Kingfisher (Megaceryle maximus) were 3.42 (SD ± 1.20) and 1.17 (SD ± 0.60) individuals per count, respectively. The remaining 10 species revealed mean values <0.5 individuals per count. Breaching events were associated with a change in feeding groups from waders to pursuit feeders, and a decrease in total bird numbers, most likely due to loss of potential littoral zone foraging habitat for waders resulting from reduced water levels. The highest bird numbers were recorded in winter reflecting the migration of large numbers of Reed Cormorant into the system. Monthly food consumption by all piscivorous birds showed large temporal variability, ranging from 26.35 to 140.58 kg per month.     

A critique of and recommendations for a subsistence fishery, Lake St Lucia, South Africa

The fish resources of Lake St Lucia, the largest estuary on the eastcoast of Africa, present resource managers of the Natal Parks Board with acommon property resource (CPR) problem. Problems associated with illegal gillnetting by local people from three tribal areas, prompted the introduction of asystem of legal, subsistence netting. This paper reviews the legal fisheries inthese three areas from 1995 to 1997, and examines existing organizationalarrangements, suggesting reasons why the three fisheries show differences infunctioning. By employing concepts from CPRs theory, elements of anorganizational design for fisheries management involving local users and theconservation organization staff are proposed.     

Effects of silt loading on the feeding and mortality of the mysid Mesopodopsis africana in the St. Lucia Estuary, South Africa

Mesopodopsis africana is an abundant zooplankton species in the currently drought stricken St. Lucia Estuary. The estuary is freshwater-starved, partly because its connection with the large Mfolozi catchment has been discontinued. This is due to the extremely high silt load carried by its waters. A series of in vitro experiments were conducted in May, July, August and December 2006, in order to determine the effect of silt loading on the feeding rate and mortality of M. africana. Mysids were subjected to different sediment concentrations in controlled experiments for a 12-hour period. The turbidity regimes were generated by adding pre-weighed silt concentrations, ranging from 0.03 g/L to 13 g/L, to natural estuarine water. Results in all cases showed a major effect of high silt levels upon food availability, as water chlorophyll losses increased with increased silt concentration. Hindrance in the food collecting abilities appears to have a compounding influence as on two occasions, May and August, ingestion rates decreased with an increase in silt concentration. However, in July, mysid ingestion and clearance rates were higher under increased suspended silt concentrations. In such cases, mysids may be clearing more water under conditions of low food concentration, or alternatively, they may switch to feeding on metazoan prey. In the December experiment, there was no relationship between ingestion rate and silt concentration, possibly because food supplies were sufficient to sustain constant ingestion rates or because mysids increased their clearance rates in the more turbid treatments to compensate for any negative effects of silt. Mysid health also declined, with the mean percentage of survivors decreasing consistently with an increase in silt concentration. Results indicate that the overall effect of increased silt load is negative, and subsequently, increased silt loading in the St. Lucia estuary is expected to have detrimental effects on communities of mysids within the estuary.     

Epiphytes of the St. Lucia Estuary and their response to water level and salinity changes during a severe drought

St. Lucia is the largest estuary in South Africa with extensive areas of submerged macrophytes that fluctuate rapidly in response to water level and salinity changes. Epiphytes associated with submerged macrophytes were sampled during a severe drought between November 2004 and October 2005 when very low water level and high, variable salinity characterised the estuary. Potamogeton pectinatus and Ruppia cirrhosa were the dominant submerged macrophytes throughout the estuary, with P. pectinatus occurring at relatively low salinity (∼10 ppt) and R. cirrhosa at higher salinity (9–33 ppt). Zostera capensis, normally the other dominant submerged macrophyte, was conspicuously absent under the prevailing conditions. Epiphytic biomass, estimated as chlorophyll a, varied greatly between sites and over the 12 month sampling period, ranging from 10.9 to 71.7 mg Chl a m⁻² leaf area for P. pectinatus and 16.9–165.0 mg Chl a m⁻² leaf area for R. cirrhosa. Epiphytic biomass was twice as high in the Southern Lake where R. cirrhosa occurred, probably because the dominant epiphytes were macroalgae. An assessment of the diatom species composition of the epiphytic community indicated the dominance of only six species throughout the estuary. Neither epiphytic biomass nor diatom species composition showed strong statistical relationships with the environmental variables measured and it is believed that biological factors may be more important than the physico-chemical environment in determining epiphyte biomass distribution. Because epiphyte biomass is dependent on the presence of host surface area it will only contribute substantially to overall system biomass and productivity when submerged macrophyte area cover is high. In the St. Lucia Estuary this will occur when the water level is high and the upper level of the salinity gradient does not increase above that of seawater.     

重金属污染对珠江口红树林表层沉积物碳含量的影响

湿地沉积物是红树林生态系统中重要的组成部分,其总有机碳储量的变化对红树林生态系统的固碳能力有着重要影响。现有对红树林湿地重金属的研究多集中于污染评价,鲜有涉及重金属含量对沉积物总有机碳（TOC）含量影响的研究。于2018-2019年期间4次前往珠江口典型红树林湿地,采集了0-30 cm表层土壤沉积物的样品,并测定其重金属含量和TOC含量,以探讨重金属含量变化对TOC的影响。结果表明,与广东地区的背景值相比,研究区沉积物重金属含量超标较为严重,重金属来源应是人类活动;沉积物的重金属含量能够显著影响TOC含量（P<0.01,R²=0.39）,间接对红树林湿地的固碳能力、甚至全球变暖产生一定影响;Cd、As、Zn含量高的沉积物环境有利于TOC的积累,Cu、Cr、Ni、Hg含量低的沉积物环境则不利于TOC的积累。沉积物的重金属对TOC的影响的机制是非常复杂的,它们可以通过影响土壤结构、土壤化学组分、土壤内微生物、上部植被群落的生长以及凋落物归还等一系列过程,导致沉积物TOC和固碳能力的变化。     

Photosynthesis and water-use efficiency of some mangroves from Sundarbans, India

We studied seasonal fluctuations in the rates of photosynthesis, transpiration, PAR, and stomatal conductance for 16 species of true mangroves from the Sundarbans region of West Bengal. Soil salinity and pH were also measured. Leaf temperatures were almost always higher than the ambient temperature. We observed considerable seasonal (summer vs winter) as well as interspecific variations in photosynthesis, with the highest rates occurring inHeritiera fomes (13.21 pmol m^-2s^-1) andAvicennia marina (11.8 mol m^-2s^-1), and the lowest inNypa fruticans (1.56 mol m^-2s^-1) andCeriops decandra (2.32 pmol m^-2s^-1), in many species, an abrupt rise in leaf temperature retarded the photosyn-thetic process. In winter, the rate of transpiration and stomatal conductance reached their maxima inA. marina (4.83 mmol ra^-2s^-1 and 124.23 m mol m^-2s^-1, respectively) and their mimima inExcoecaria agallocha (1.85 mmol m^-2s^-1 and 49.19 mmol m^-2s^-1, respectively). In contrast, the maximum summer readings were recorded in E.agallocha (6.07 mmol m^-2s^-1 and 192.74 mmol m^-2s^-1 respectively).     

Biodiversity census of Lake St Lucia,iSimangaliso Wetland Park (South Africa): Gastropod molluscs

The recent dry phase experienced by the St Lucia estuarine system has led to unprecedented desiccation and hypersaline conditions through most of its surface area. This has changed only recently, at the end of 2011, with the onset of a new wet phase that has already caused a major shift to oligo- and mesohaline conditions. The estuary mouth, however, remains closed to the ocean, making the weak connection recently established between the St Lucia and the Mfolozi estuaries the only conveyance for marine recruitment. As a result, only 10 indigenous and two alien aquatic gastropod species are currently found living in the St Lucia estuarine lake. This is out of a total of 37 species recorded within the system since the earliest survey undertaken in 1924, half of which have not been reported in the literature before. The tick shell, Nassarius kraussianus, which was consistently found in large abundance prior to the recent dry phase, appears to have temporarily disappeared from the system, probably as a result of the extinction of Zostera marine grasses inside the lake. Population explosions of the bubble shell Haminoea natalensis, with its distinct egg masses, were recorded seasonally until 2009, but the species has subsequently not been observed again. A molecular DNA analysis of the various populations previously reported as belonging to the same assimineid species, variably referred to as Assiminea capensis, A. ovata, or A. bifasciata, has revealed that the St Lucia assemblage actually comprises two very distinct taxa, A. cf. capensis and a species provisionally referred to here as “A.” aff. capensis or simply Assimineidae sp. In the mangroves, the climbing whelk Cerithidea decollata is still found in numbers, while ellobiids such as Cassidula labrella, Melampus semiaratus and M. parvulus are present in low abundances and all previously recorded littorinids have disappeared. A number of alien freshwater species have colonized areas of the system that have remained under low salinity. These include the invasive thiarid Tarebia granifera, which can be found in concentrations exceeding 5000 ind.m^-2, the lymnaeid Pseudosuccinea columella and the physid Aplexa marmorata.     

Evaluating,predicting and mapping belowground carbon stores in Kenyan mangroves

Despite covering only approximately 138 000 km², mangroves are globally important carbon sinks with carbon density values three to four times that of terrestrial forests. A key challenge in evaluating the carbon benefits from mangrove forest conservation is the lack of rigorous spatially resolved estimates of mangrove sediment carbon stocks; most mangrove carbon is stored belowground. Previous work has focused on detailed estimations of carbon stores over relatively small areas, which has obvious limitations in terms of generality and scope of application. Most studies have focused only on quantifying the top 1 m of belowground carbon (BGC). Carbon stored at depths beyond 1 m, and the effects of mangrove species, location and environmental context on these stores, are poorly studied. This study investigated these variables at two sites (Gazi and Vanga in the south of Kenya) and used the data to produce a country‐specific BGC predictive model for Kenya and map BGC store estimates throughout Kenya at spatial scales relevant for climate change research, forest management and REDD+ (reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation). The results revealed that mangrove species was the most reliable predictor of BGC; Rhizophora muronata had the highest mean BGC with 1485.5 t C ha^?1. Applying the species‐based predictive model to a base map of species distribution in Kenya for the year 2010 with a 2.5 m² resolution produced an estimate of 69.41 Mt C [±9.15 95% confidence interval (C.I.)] for BGC in Kenyan mangroves. When applied to a 1992 mangrove distribution map, the BGC estimate was 75.65 Mt C (±12.21 95% C.I.), an 8.3% loss in BGC stores between 1992 and 2010 in Kenya. The country‐level mangrove map provides a valuable tool for assessing carbon stocks and visualizing the distribution of BGC. Estimates at the 2.5 m² resolution provide sufficient details for highlighting and prioritizing areas for mangrove conservation and restoration.     

Disturbance,drought and dynamics of desert dune grassland,South Africa

A seven-year study of marked plants and plots in Stipagrostis ciliata (Desf.) de Winter dune grassland, in the arid (<100 mm yr^–1) Bushmanland area of the Northern Cape province of South Africa, was designed to test the hypothesis that establishment of ephemeral plants, and recruitment of perennial grasses was dependent upon disturbances that reduced the density of living perennial grass tussocks. In 1989, eight 4 m² plots were cleared of perennial vegetation by uprooting and removing all plants so as to resemble small-scale disturbances made by burrowing mammals or territorial antelope. The vegetation on the cleared plots and surroundings was monitored until 1996. Initial results supported our hypothesis. In wet years, when ephemeral plants were abundant, their average fresh mass was 2–3 times greater per unit area on the cleared plots than in control plots in adjacent, undisturbed grassland. Many Stipagrostis seedlings established in the cleared plots over the two years following clearing but were rare in adjacent areas among established conspecifics. However, a drought in 1992 (11 mm of rain over 12 months) lead to widespread mortality of the perennial grass, killing 56% (range 22–79%) of established tufts. High densities of Stipagrostis seedlings appeared following the drought-breaking rains in January 1993, both in the disturbed plots and in the surrounding `undisturbed' dune grassland. Ephemeral plants established in large numbers throughout the area during the high rainfall year of 1996 and were generally more numerous in the old disturbances than in control plots. Seven years after clearing the biomass of grass on the cleared plots was approximately 34% of the mass removed from the plots in 1989 whereas in the undisturbed grassland biomass was 66% of 1989 levels. Drought had little long-term effect on community composition, and Stipagrostis ciliata constituted 94–98% of plant community before and after drought. Cleared plots were recolonised by S. ciliata, but the contribution of other grass species increased by 6–9%. Synchronous recruitment following occasional drought-induced mortality can generate even-aged populations of the dominant desert dune grasses.