A single mutation in the nonamyloidogenic region of islet amyloid polypeptide greatly reduces toxicity

Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP or amylin) is a 37-residue peptide secreted with insulin by beta-cells in the islets of Langerhans. The aggregation of the peptide into either amyloid fibers or small soluble oligomers has been implicated in the death of beta-cells during type 2 diabetes through disruption of the cellular membrane. The actual form of the peptide responsible for beta-cell death has been a subject of controversy. Previous research has indicated that the N-terminal region of the peptide (residues 1-19) is primarily responsible for the membrane-disrupting effect of the hIAPP peptide and induces membrane disruption to a similar extent as the full-length peptide without forming amyloid fibers when bound to the membrane. The rat version of the peptide, which is both noncytotoxic and nonamyloidogenic, differs from the human peptide by only one amino acid residue: Arg18 in the rat version while His18 in the human version. To elucidate the effect of this difference, we have measured in this study the effects of the rat and human versions of IAPP(1-19) on islet cells and model membranes. Fluorescence microscopy shows a rapid increase in intracellular calcium levels of islet cells after the addition of hIAPP(1-19), indicating disruption of the cellular membrane, while the rat version of the IAPP(1-19) peptide is significantly less effective. Circular dichroism experiments and dye leakage assays on model liposomes show that rIAPP(1-19) is deficient in binding to and disrupting lipid membranes at low but not at high peptide to lipid ratios, indicating that the ability of rIAPP(1-19) to form small aggregates necessary for membrane binding and disruption is significantly less than hIAPP(1-19). At pH 6.0, where H18 is likely to be protonated, hIAPP(1-19) resembles rIAPP(1-19) in its ability to cause membrane disruption. Differential scanning calorimetry suggests a different mode of binding to the membrane for rIAPP(1-19) compared to hIAPP(1-19). Human IAPP(1-19) has a minimal effect on the phase transition of lipid vesicles, suggesting a membrane orientation of the peptide in which the mobility of the acyl chains of the membrane is relatively unaffected. Rat IAPP(1-19), however, has a strong effect on the phase transition of lipid vesicles at low concentrations, suggesting that the peptide does not easily insert into the membrane after binding to the surface. Our results indicate that the modulation of the peptide orientation in the membrane by His18 plays a key role in the toxicity of nonamyloidogenic forms of hIAPP.     

All-atom structure ensembles of islet amyloid polypeptides determined by enhanced sampling and experiment data restraints

Exploring the accurate structure ensembles are critical to understand the functions of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs). As a well-known IDP, islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) plays important roles in the development of human type II diabetes (T2D). The toxicity of human IAPP (hIAPP) is induced by the amyloidosis of the peptide, however, its aggregation mechanism remains ambiguous. The characterization of structure ensemble of hIAPP, as well as the differences between hIAPP and its non-amyloidogenic homologous such as rat IAPP (rIAPP), would greatly help to illuminate the amyloidosis mechanism of IAPP. In this study, the atomic structure ensembles of hIAPP and rIAPP were characterized by all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations combined with enhanced sampling technology and experiment data restraints. The obtained structure ensembles were firstly compared with those determined by the conventional MD (cMD) and enhanced sampling without experiment data restraints. The results showed that the enhanced sampling and experiment data restraints would improve the simulation accuracy. The transient N-terminal α-helix structures were adopted by the sub-states of both hIAPP and rIAPP, however, the C-terminal helical structures were only present on hIAPP. The hydrophobic residues in the amyloid-core region of hIAPP are exposed to the solvent. The structure ensemble differences between hIAPP and rIAPP revealed in this work provide potential explain to the amyloidogenic mechanism and would be helpful for the design of drugs to combat T2D.     

Neutron diffraction reveals sequence-specific membrane insertion of pre-fibrillar islet amyloid polypeptide and inhibition by rifampicin

Human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) forms amyloid deposits in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Pre-fibrillar hIAPP oligomers (in contrast to monomeric IAPP or mature fibrils) increase membrane permeability, suggesting an important role in the disease. In the first structural study of membrane-associated hIAPP, lamellar neutron diffraction shows that oligomeric hIAPP inserts into phospholipid bilayers, and extends across the membrane. Rifampicin, which inhibits hIAPP-induced membrane permeabilisation in functional studies, prevents membrane insertion. In contrast, rat IAPP (84% identical to hIAPP, but non-amyloidogenic) does not insert into bilayers. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that membrane-active pre-fibrillar hIAPP oligomers insert into beta cell membranes in NIDDM.     

Structures of rat and human islet amyloid polypeptide IAPP(1-19) in micelles by NMR spectroscopy

Disruption of the cellular membrane by the amyloidogenic peptide IAPP (or amylin) has been implicated in beta-cell death during type 2 diabetes. While the structure of the mostly inert fibrillar form of IAPP has been investigated, the structural details of the highly toxic prefibrillar membrane-bound states of IAPP have been elusive. A recent study showed that a fragment of IAPP (residues 1-19) induces membrane disruption to a similar extent as the full-length peptide. However, unlike the full-length IAPP peptide, IAPP(1-19) is conformationally stable in an alpha-helical conformation when bound to the membrane. In vivo and in vitro measurements of membrane disruption indicate the rat version of IAPP(1-19), despite differing from hIAPP(1-19) by the single substitution of Arg18 for His18, is significantly less toxic than hIAPP(1-19), in agreement with the low toxicity of the full-length rat IAPP peptide. To investigate the origin of this difference at the atomic level, we have solved the structures of the human and rat IAPP(1-19) peptides in DPC micelles. While both rat and human IAPP(1-19) fold into similar mostly alpha-helical structures in micelles, paramagnetic quenching NMR experiments indicate a significant difference in the membrane orientation of hIAPP(1-19) and rIAPP(1-19). At pH 7.3, the more toxic hIAPP(1-19) peptide is buried deeper within the micelle, while the less toxic rIAPP(1-19) peptide is located at the surface of the micelle. Deprotonating H18 in hIAPP(1-19) reorients the peptide to the surface of the micelle. This change in orientation is in agreement with the significantly reduced ability of hIAPP(1-19) to cause membrane disruption at pH 6.0. This difference in peptide topology in the membrane may correspond to similar topology differences for the full-length human and rat IAPP peptides, with the toxic human IAPP peptide adopting a transmembrane orientation and the nontoxic rat IAPP peptide bound to the surface of the membrane.     

Induction of endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced beta-cell apoptosis and accumulation of polyubiquitinated proteins by human islet amyloid polypeptide

The islet in type 2 diabetes is characterized by an approximately 60% beta-cell deficit, increased beta-cell apoptosis, and islet amyloid derived from islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP). Human IAPP (hIAPP) but not rodent IAPP (rIAPP) forms toxic oligomers and amyloid fibrils in an aqueous environment. We previously reported that overexpression of hIAPP in transgenic rats triggered endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced apoptosis in beta-cells. In the present study, we sought to establish whether the cytotoxic effects of hIAPP depend on its propensity to oligomerize, rather than as a consequence of protein overexpression. To accomplish this, we established a novel homozygous mouse model overexpressing rIAPP at a comparable expression rate and, on the same background, as a homozygous transgenic hIAPP mouse model previously reported to develop diabetes associated with beta-cell loss. We report that by 10 wk of age hIAPP mice develop diabetes with a deficit in beta-cell mass due to increased beta-cell apoptosis. The rIAPP transgenic mice counterparts do not develop diabetes or have decreased beta-cell mass. Both rIAPP and hIAPP transgenic mice have increased expression of BiP, but only hIAPP transgenic mice have elevated ER stress markers (X-box-binding protein-1, nuclear localized CCAAT/enhancer binding-protein homologous protein, active caspase-12, and accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins). These findings indicate that the beta-cell toxic effects of hIAPP depend on the propensity of IAPP to aggregate, but not on the consequence of protein overexpression.     

Binding of islet amyloid polypeptide to supported lipid bilayers and amyloid aggregation at the membranes

Amyloid deposition of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) in the islets of Langerhans is closely associated with the pathogenesis of type II diabetes mellitus. Despite substantial evidence linking amyloidogenic hIAPP to loss of β-cell mass and decreased pancreatic function, the molecular mechanism of hIAPP cytotoxicity is poorly understood. We here investigated the binding of hIAPP and nonamyloidogenic rat IAPP to substrate-supported planar bilayers and examined the membrane-mediated amyloid aggregation. The membrane binding of IAPP in soluble and fibrillar states was characterized using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring, revealing significant differences in the binding abilities among different species and conformational states of IAPP. Patterned model membranes composed of polymerized and fluid lipid bilayer domains were used to microscopically observe the amyloid aggregation of hIAPP in its membrane-bound state. The results have important implications for lipid-mediated aggregation following the penetration of hIAPP into fluid membranes. Using the fluorescence recovery after photobleaching method, we show that the processes of membrane binding and subsequent amyloid aggregation are accompanied by substantial changes in membrane fluidity and morphology. Additionally, we show that the fibrillar hIAPP has a potential ability to perturb the membrane structure in experiments of the fibril-mediated aggregation of lipid vesicles. The results obtained in this study using model membranes reveal that membrane-bound hIAPP species display a pronounced membrane perturbation ability and suggest the potential involvement of the oligomeic forms of hAPP in membrane dysfunction.     

Comparing the structural properties of human and rat islet amyloid polypeptide by MD computer simulations

Conformational properties of the full-length human and rat islet amyloid polypeptide 1-37 (amyloidogenic hIAPP and non-amyloidogenic rIAPP, respectively) were studied at 310 and 330 K by MD simulations both for the cysteine (reduced IAPP) and cystine (oxidized IAPP) moieties. At all temperatures studied, IAPP does not adopt a well-defined conformation and is essentially random coil in solution, although transient helices appear forming along the peptide between residues 8 and 22, particularly in the reduced form. Above the water percolation transition (at 320 K), the reduced hIAPP moiety presents a considerably diminished helical content remaining unstructured, while the natural cystine moiety reaches a rather compact state, presenting a radius of gyration that is almost 10% smaller and characterized by intrapeptide H-bonds that form many β-bridges in the C-terminal region. This compact conformation presents a short end-to-end distance and seems to form through the formation of β-sheet conformations in the C-terminal region with a minimization of the Y/F distances in a two-step mechanism: the first step taking place when the Y37/F23 distance is ~ 1.1 nm, and subsequently Y37/F15 reaches its minimum of ~ 0.86 nm. rIAPP, which does not aggregate, also presents transient helical conformations. A particularly stable helix is located in proximity of the C-terminal region, starting from residues L27 and P28. Our MD simulations show that P28 in rIAPP influences the secondary structure of IAPP by stabilizing the peptide in helical conformations. When this helix is not present, the peptide presents bends or H-bonded turns at P28 that seem to inhibit the formation of the β-bridges seen in hIAPP. Conversely, hIAPP is highly disordered in the C-terminal region, presenting transient isolated β-strand conformations, particularly at higher temperatures and when the natural disulfide bond is present. Such conformational differences found in our simulations could be responsible for the different aggregational propensities of the two different homologues. In fact, the fragment 30-37, which is identical in both homologues, is known to aggregate in vitro, hence the overall sequence must be responsible for the amyloidogenicity of hIAPP. The increased helicity in rIAPP induced by the serine-to-proline variation at residue 28 seems to be a plausible inhibitor of its aggregation.     

Phospholipid catalysis of diabetic amyloid assembly

Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) is a 37-residue hormone that forms cytotoxic amyloid fibers in the endocrine pancreas of patients with type II diabetes (NIDDM). A potential origin for cytotoxicity is disruption of lipid membranes by IAPP as has been observed in vitro. The cause of amyloid formation during NIDDM is not known, nor is the mechanism by which membrane disruption occurs in vitro. Here, we use kinetic studies in conjunction with assessments of lipid binding and electron microscopy to investigate the interactions of IAPP with phospholipid bilayers and the morphological effects of membranes on IAPP fibers. Fibrillogenesis of IAPP is catalyzed by synthetic and human tissue-derived phospholipids, leading to >tenfold increases in the rate of fibrillogenesis. The molecular basis of this phenomenon includes a strong dependence on the concentration and charge density of the membrane. IAPP binds to lipid membranes of mixed anionic (DOPG) and zwitterionic (DOPC) content. The transition for binding occurs over a physiologically relevant range of anionic content. Membrane binding by IAPP occurs on timescales that are short compared to fibrillogenesis and results in assembly into preamyloid states via ordered interactions at the N but not C terminus of the protein. These assemblies lead both to gross morphological changes in liposomes and to alterations in the appearance of early fibers when compared to liposome-free fibril formation. Intact bilayer surfaces are regenerated upon dissociation of fibers from the membrane surface. These findings offer a structural mechanism of membrane destabilization and suggest that changes in lipid metabolism could induce IAPP fiber formation in NIDDM.     

Cyclic N-Terminal Loop of Amylin Forms Non Amyloid Fibers

We report for the first time, to our knowledge, that the N-terminal loop (N_loop) of amylin (islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) residues 1–8) forms extremely long and stable non-β-sheet fibers in solution under the same conditions in which human amylin (hIAPP) forms amyloid fibers. This observation applies to the cyclic, oxidized form of the N_loop but not to the linear, reduced form, which does not form fibers. Our findings indicate a potential role of direct N_loop-N_loop interactions in hIAPP aggregation, which has not been previously explored, with important implications for the mechanism of hIAPP amyloid fiber formation, the inhibitory action of IAPP variants, and the competition between ordered and disordered aggregation in peptides of the calcitonin peptide family.     

Cyclic N-Terminal Loop of Amylin Forms Non Amyloid Fibers

We report for the first time, to our knowledge, that the N-terminal loop (N_loop) of amylin (islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) residues 1–8) forms extremely long and stable non-β-sheet fibers in solution under the same conditions in which human amylin (hIAPP) forms amyloid fibers. This observation applies to the cyclic, oxidized form of the N_loop but not to the linear, reduced form, which does not form fibers. Our findings indicate a potential role of direct N_loop-N_loop interactions in hIAPP aggregation, which has not been previously explored, with important implications for the mechanism of hIAPP amyloid fiber formation, the inhibitory action of IAPP variants, and the competition between ordered and disordered aggregation in peptides of the calcitonin peptide family.     

Amyloidogenicity of naturally occurring full‐length animal IAPP variants

The aggregation of the 37‐amino acid polypeptide human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP), as either insoluble amyloid or as small oligomers, appears to play a direct role in the death of human pancreatic β‐islet cells in type 2 diabetes. hIAPP is considered to be one of the most amyloidogenic proteins known. The quick aggregation of hIAPP leads to the formation of toxic species, such as oligomers and fibers, that damage mammalian cells (both human and rat pancreatic cells). Whether this toxicity is necessary for the progression of type 2 diabetes or merely a side effect of the disease remains unclear. If hIAPP aggregation into toxic amyloid is on‐path for developing type 2 diabetes in humans, islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) aggregation would likely need to play a similar role within other organisms known to develop the disease. In this work, we compared the aggregation potential and cellular toxicity of full‐length IAPP from several diabetic and nondiabetic organisms whose aggregation propensities had not yet been determined for full‐length IAPP.     

Structure and membrane orientation of IAPP in its natively amidated form at physiological pH in a membrane environment

Human islet amyloid polypeptide is a hormone coexpressed with insulin by pancreatic beta-cells. For reasons not clearly understood, hIAPP aggregates in type II diabetics to form oligomers that interfere with beta-cell function, eventually leading to the loss of insulin production. The cellular membrane catalyzes the formation of amyloid deposits and is a target of amyloid toxicity through disruption of the membrane's structural integrity. Therefore, there is considerable current interest in solving the 3D structure of this peptide in a membrane environment. NMR experiments could not be directly utilized in lipid bilayers due to the rapid aggregation of the peptide. To overcome this difficulty, we have solved the structure of the naturally occurring peptide in detergent micelles at a neutral pH. The structure has an overall kinked helix motif, with residues 7-17 and 21-28 in a helical conformation, and with a 3(10) helix from Gly 33-Asn 35. In addition, the angle between the N- and C-terminal helices is constrained to 85°. The greater helical content of human IAPP in the amidated versus free acid form is likely to play a role in its aggregation and membrane disruptive activity.     

Inhibitors can arrest the membrane activity of human islet amyloid polypeptide independently of amyloid formation.

Human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP), co-secreted with insulin from pancreatic beta cells, misfolds to form amyloid deposits in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Like many amyloidogenic proteins, hIAPP is membrane-active: this may be significant in the pathogenesis of NIDDM. Non-fibrillar hIAPP induces electrical and physical breakdown in planar lipid bilayers, and IAPP inserts spontaneously into lipid monolayers, markedly increasing their surface area and producing Brewster angle microscopy reflectance changes. Congo red inhibits these activities, and they are completely arrested by rifampicin, despite continued amyloid formation. Our results support the idea that non-fibrillar IAPP is membrane-active, and may have implications for therapy and for structural studies of membrane-active amyloid.     

Sequence and Crowding Effects in the Aggregation of a 10-Residue Fragment Derived from Islet Amyloid Polypeptide

Fibril formation from amyloidogenic peptides is a hallmark of a wide range of diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and type II diabetes. Characterization of the aggregation process should include intrinsic factors, such as sequence variation, and extrinsic factors, such as crowding effects. To this end, we examined the interactions of dimers composed of residues 20-29 of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP), which form fibrils in vitro, and the nonamyloidogenic rat IAPP (rIAPP) using molecular dynamics simulations modeled at different peptide concentrations. There is a substantial free energy barrier to unbind the hIAPP dimer whereas no barrier exists for separating the rIAPP dimer. The profound differences in the free energy landscapes of the rIAPP and hIAPP dimers explains the lack of fibril formation in hIAPP upon substitution of the C-terminal residues by proline. Enhancing the extent of crowding has a substantial effect on both the barrier for separating a hIAPP β-sheet dimer and the formation of potential β-sheet nucleation sites. Our results show that the propensity for forming nucleation sites is dependent not only on the amino-acid sequence but also on the context in which it is found.     

Fiber-Dependent and -Independent Toxicity of Islet Amyloid Polypeptide

The 37-residue peptide hormone islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) plays a central role in diabetes pathology. Although its amyloid fiber aggregation kinetics and cytotoxicity to β-cells are well documented, few reports have directly assessed the role of fibers in cell-based toxicity experiments. Here, we report that amyloid formation of IAPP can be strongly inhibited by the extracellular environment of live cells. For example, fiber formation is more strongly suppressed in cell culture medium than in aqueous buffer. The serum component of the medium is responsible for this inhibition. Although amyloid formation was previously shown to be catalyzed by both synthetic and chloroform-extracted phospholipid surfaces, it is instead inhibited by membrane surfaces prepared directly from the plasma membranes of an immortal β-cell line. This disparity is reconciled by direct assessment of fibers in cell-culture-based toxicity experiments. We discovered that fibers are nontoxic if they are washed free of adsorbed nonfibrillar components. Moreover, toxicity is not only rescued when monomers are added back to fibers but is greater than what is observed from the precursor alone. Our results are interpreted in light of the capacity of the fiber surface to template amyloid nucleation.     

A single mutation on the human amyloid polypeptide modulates fibril growth and affects the mechanism of amyloid-induced membrane damage

Amyloid fibril formation has been implicated in a wide range of human diseases and the interactions of amyloidogenic proteins with cell membranes are considered to be important in the aetiology of these pathologies. In type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), the human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) forms amyloid fibrils which impair the functionality and viability of pancreatic β cells. The mechanisms of hIAPP cytotoxicity are linked to the ability of the peptide to self-aggregate and to interact with membranes. Previous studies have shown that the N-terminal part of hIAPP from residues 1 to 19 is the membrane binding domain. The non-amyloidogenic and nontoxic mouse IAPP differs from hIAPP by six residues out of 37, among which a single one, residue 18, lies in the membrane binding region. To gain more insight into hIAPP-membrane interactions we herein performed comprehensive biophysical studies on four analogues (H18R-IAPP, H18K-IAPP, H18E-IAPP and H18A-IAPP). Our data reveal that all peptides are able to insert efficiently in the membrane, indicating that residue 18 is not essential for hIAPP membrane binding and insertion. However, only wild-type hIAPP and H18K-IAPP are able to form fibrils at the membrane. Importantly, all peptides induce membrane damage; wild-type hIAPP and H18K-IAPP presumably cause membrane disruption mainly by fibril growth at the membrane, while for H18R-IAPP, H18E-IAPP and H18A-IAPP, membrane leakage is most likely due to high molecular weight oligomeric species. These results highlight the importance of the residue at position 18 in IAPP for modulating fibril formation at the membrane and the mechanisms of membrane leakage.     

How type II diabetes-related islet amyloid polypeptide damages lipid bilayers

A leading hypothesis for the decimation of insulin-producing β-cells in type 2 diabetes attributes the cause to islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) for its deleterious effects on the cell membranes. This idea has produced extensive investigations on human IAPP (hIAPP) and its interactions with lipid bilayers. However, it is still difficult to correlate the peptide-lipid interactions with its effects on islet cells in culture. The hIAPP fibrils have been shown to interact with lipids and damage lipid bilayers, but appear to have no effect on islet cells in culture. Thus, a modified amyloid hypothesis assumes that the toxicity is caused by hIAPP oligomers, which are not preamyloid fibrils or protofibrils. However, so far such oligomers have not been isolated or identified. The hIAPP monomers also bind to lipid bilayers, but the mode of interaction is not clear. Here, we performed two types of experiments that, to our knowledge, have not been done before. We used x-ray diffraction, in conjunction with circular dichroism measurement, to reveal the location of the peptide bound to a lipid bilayer. We also investigated the effects of hIAPP on giant unilamellar vesicles at various peptide concentrations. We obtained the following qualitative results. Monomeric hIAPP binds within the headgroup region and expands the membrane area of a lipid bilayer. At low concentrations, such binding causes no leakage or damage to the lipid bilayer. At high concentrations, the bound peptides transform to β-aggregates. The aggregates exit the headgroup region and bind to the surface of lipid bilayers. The damage by the surface bound β-aggregates depends on the aggregation size. The initial aggregation extracts lipid molecules, which probably causes ion permeation, but no molecular leakage. However, the initial β-aggregates serve as the seed for larger fibrils, in the manner of the Jarrett-Lansbury seeded-polymerization model, that eventually disintegrate lipid bilayers by electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions.     

Lipid membranes modulate the structure of islet amyloid polypeptide

The 37-residue islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) is thought to play an important role in the pathogenesis of type II diabetes. Despite a growing body of evidence implicating membrane interaction in IAPP toxicity, the membrane-bound form has not yet been well characterized. Here we used circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence spectroscopy to investigate the molecular details of the interaction of IAPP with lipid membranes of varying composition. In the presence of membranes containing negatively charged phosphatidylserine (PS), we observed significant acceleration in the formation of IAPP aggregates. This acceleration is strongly modulated by the PS concentration and ionic strength, and is also observed at physiologically relevant PS concentrations. CD spectra of IAPP obtained immediately after the addition of membranes containing PS revealed features characteristic of an alpha-helical conformation approximately approximately 15-19 residues in length. After a longer incubation with membranes, IAPP gave rise to CD spectra characteristic of a beta-sheet conformation. Taken together, our CD and fluorescence data indicate that conditions that promote weakly stable alpha-helical conformations may promote IAPP aggregation. The potential roles of IAPP-membrane interaction and the novel membrane-bound alpha-helical conformation in IAPP aggregation are discussed.     

Reciprocal Interactions between Membrane Bilayers and S. aureus PSMα3 Cross-α Amyloid Fibrils Account for Species-Specific Cytotoxicity

Phenol-soluble modulin α3 (PSMα3) is a functional amyloid secreted by the pathogenic bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. This 22-residue peptide serves as a key virulence determinant, toxic to human cells via the formation of unique cross-α amyloid-like fibrils. We demonstrate that bilayer vesicles accelerated PSMα3 fibril formation, and the fibrils, in turn, inserted deeply into bilayers mimicking mammalian cell membranes, accounting for PSMα3 cellular toxicity. Importantly, a mere amphipathic helical conformation was not a sufficient determinant for membrane-activity of PSMα3, pointing to the functional role of cross-α fibrils. In contrast to deep insertion of PSMα3 into mammalian membrane bilayers, the peptide only interacted with the surface of bilayers mimicking bacterial membranes, which might be related to its lack of antibacterial activity. Together, our data provide mechanistic insight into species-specific toxicity of a key bacterial amyloid virulence factor via reciprocal interactions with membranes, and open new perspectives into amyloid-related cytotoxicity mediated by helical fibril structures.     

Islet amyloid polypeptide forms rigid lipid-protein amyloid fibrils on supported phospholipid bilayers

Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) forms fibrillar amyloid deposits in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, and its misfolding and aggregation are thought to contribute to β-cell death. Increasing evidence suggests that IAPP fibrillization is strongly influenced by lipid membranes and, vice versa, that the membrane architecture and integrity are severely affected by amyloid growth. Here, we report direct fluorescence microscopic observations of the morphological transformations accompanying IAPP fibrillization on the surface of supported lipid membranes. Within minutes of application in submicromolar concentrations, IAPP caused extensive remodeling of the membrane including formation of defects, vesiculation, and tubulation. The effects of IAPP concentration, ionic strength, and the presence of amyloid seeds on the bilayer perturbation and peptide aggregation were examined. Growth of amyloid fibrils was visualized using fluorescently labeled IAPP or thioflavin T staining. Two-color imaging of the peptide and membranes revealed that the fibrils were initially composed of the peptide only, and vesiculation occurred in the points where growing fibers touched the lipid membrane. Interestingly, after 2-5 h of incubation, IAPP fibers became “wrapped” by lipid membranes derived from the supported membrane. Progressive increase in molecular-level association between amyloid and membranes in the maturing fibers was confirmed by Förster resonance energy transfer spectroscopy.