Impacts of an alien species (Spartina alterniflora) on the macrobenthos community of Jiangsu coastal inter-tidal ecosystem

Spartina alterniflora, a species vegetating on inter-tidal flats that was introduced from the eastern coast of United States, has become a hot topic, focusing on its invasion within local species in the coastal zone of China. Impacts of S. alterniflora on the inter-tidal macrobenthos community in the Jiangsu coastland are addressed by comparing the macrobenthos characteristics in a mudflat and in a four-year-old Spartina salt marsh that had earlier been a mudflat. During the period October 2002–July 2003, we studied the distribution pattern and diversity of macrobenthos, and discussed their correlation with environmental factors caused by Spartina vegetation. The results showed that a total of 43 macrobenthos species were found, mainly consisting of Mollusca, Crustacea, and Annelida. Ten macrobenthos species were found in the Spartina salt marsh, and 36 species were found in the mudflat. Life forms and functional groups of macrobenthos in the Spartina salt marsh were obviously distrinct from that of the mudflat. The study showed that macrobenthos diversity in the Spartina salt marsh decreased, and the community structure altered obviously, whereas the biomass showed no differences in different seasons. Statistical analysis demonstrated that seasonal change of macrobenthos diversity in the Spartina salt marsh negatively related to content of sediment organic matter, total N, bulk density, height and biomass of Spartina vegetation, and positively related to the density of Spartina. All these differences suggested the obvious effects of the Spartina vegetation on the Jiangsu inter-tidal benthic macroinvertebrate ecology. Furthermore, the investigation also showed that the niche of the native macrobenthos living in the mudflat has been transferred down, seaward, due to the invasion of Spartina in our study site.     

Role of climate and agricultural practice in determining matter discharge into large,shallow Lake Võrtsjärv,Estonia

Understanding the dynamics of fine sediment transport across the upper intertidal zone is critical in managing the erosion and accretion of intertidal areas, and in managed realignment/estuarine habitat recreation strategies. This paper examines the transfer of sediments between salt marsh and mudflat environments in two contrasting macrotidal estuaries: the Seine (France) and the Medway (UK), using data collected during two joint field seasons undertaken by the Anglo-French RIMEW project (Rives-Manche Estuary Watch). High-resolution ADCP, Altimeter, OBS and ASM measurements from mudflat and marsh surface environments have been combined with sediment trap data to examine short-term sediment transport processes under spring tide and storm flow conditions. In addition, the longer-term accumulation of sediment in each salt marsh system has been examined via radiometric dating of sediment cores. In the Seine, rapid sediment accumulation and expansion of salt marsh areas, and subsequent loss of open intertidal mudflats, is a major problem, and the data collected here indicate a distinct net landward flux of sediments into the marsh interior. Suspended sediment fluxes are much higher than in the Medway estuary (averaging 0.09 g/m³/s), and vertical accumulation rates at the salt marsh/mudflat boundary exceed 3 cm/y. Suspended sediment data collected during storm surge conditions indicate that significant in-wash of fine sediments into the marsh interior can occur during (and following) these high-magnitude events. In contrast to the Seine, the Medway is undergoing erosion and general loss of salt marsh areas. Suspended sediment fluxes are of the order of 0.03 g/m³/s, and the marsh system here has much lower rates of vertical accretion (sediment accumulation rates are ca. 4 mm/y). Current velocity data for the Medway site indicate higher velocities on the ebb tide than occur on the flood tide, which may be sufficient to remobilise sediments deposited on the previous tide and so force net removal of material from the marsh.     

盐城淤泥质潮滩湿地潮沟发育及其对米草扩张的影响

潮沟是潮滩上发育典型的地貌因子,是潮滩演变的重要标志。米草植被的发育与扩张,改变了潮流的动力特征和滩面物质组成,从而形成了特殊的米草潮沟系统。采用实地调查与遥感影像相结合的方法,分析了湿地潮沟的整体形态特征,并重点对米草潮沟系统的形态特征及成因进行了系统分析。结果表明:①受潮流和地形作用的控制,本区并无大型潮沟分布,潮沟规模从北至南依次增大,发育高程为0—1.8 m。盐沼和光滩上潮沟形态截然不同。②米草潮沟系统具有独特特征:潮沟多窄而深、密度大、分级多、侧向迁移小于纵向迁移、宽深比较小;潮沟两侧发育高度不等的不对称性的沿岸堤;盐沼边缘发育有陡坎和冲沟,并贯穿整个米草带。③潮沟的发育是影响米草向内陆碱蓬区扩张的因素之一,起着非常重要的引领作用,而米草陆向扩张的宽度和幅度取决于所在区域潮沟的发育程度。同时,随米草扩张速度的降低,光滩上潮沟的活动性有所放缓。     

Salt marsh harvest mouse demography and habitat use in the Suisun Marsh,California

We undertook a 2-year (2002–2004) mark–recapture study to investigate demographic performance and habitat use of salt marsh harvest mice (Reithrodontomys raviventris halicoetes) in the Suisun Marsh. We examined the effects of different wetland types and microhabitats on 3 demographic variables: density, reproductive potential, and persistence. Our results indicate that microhabitats dominated by mixed vegetation or pickleweed (Salicornia spp.) supported similar salt marsh harvest mouse densities, reproductive potential, and persistence throughout much of the year, whereas few salt marsh harvest mice inhabited upland grass-dominated microhabitats. We found that densities were higher in diked wetlands, whereas post-winter persistence was higher in tidal wetlands, and reproductive potential did not differ statistically between wetland types. Our results emphasize the importance of mixed vegetation for providing adequate salt marsh harvest mouse habitat and suggest that, despite their physiognomic and hydrological differences, both diked and tidal wetlands support salt marsh harvest mouse populations by promoting different demographic attributes. We recommend that habitat management, restoration, and enhancement efforts include areas containing mixed vegetation in addition to pickleweed in both diked and tidal wetlands. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Use of GIS and high resolution LiDAR in salt marsh restoration site suitability assessments in the upper Bay of Fundy, Canada

Salt marshes exhibit striking vegetation zonation corresponding to spatially variable elevation gradients which dictate their frequency of inundation by the tides. The salt marshes in the upper Bay of Fundy, a dynamic hypertidal system, are of considerable interest due to increasing recognition of salt marsh ecosystem values and the extent of prior conversion of salt marshes to agricultural lands, much of which are no longer in use. To determine the suitability of two potential restoration sites at Beausejour Marsh in New Brunswick, Canada, geomatics technologies and techniques were used to assess vegetation and elevation patterns in an adjacent reference salt marsh and the proposed restoration sites. Light detection and ranging digital elevation models (DEMs) were created for the reference marsh and the restoration sites in both the spring (leaf-off) and late summer (leaf-on, maximum biomass) periods. Aerial photographs and Quickbird multispectral imagery were used to visually interpret vegetation zones on the reference marsh and were field validated using vegetation characteristics from quadrats referenced with differential GPS. Elevation limits of the salt marsh vegetation zones were extracted from the DEM of the reference marsh and applied to the DEM of the restoration sites to determine the percentage area of each site that would be immediately suitable for new salt marsh growth. Of the two restoration sites assessed, one had experienced significant subsidence since dyking; only about 40 % of the site area was determined to be of sufficient elevation for immediate vegetation colonization. The second site, while more than 88 % suitable, would require the installation of a large dyke on the landward side of the restoration site to prevent flooding of adjacent lands. This study provides essential high resolution elevation and vegetation zonation data for use in restoration site assessments, and highlights the usefulness of applied geomatics in the salt marsh restoration planning process.     

Ecological responses to tidal restorations of two northern New England salt marshes

Efforts are underway to restore tidal flow in New England salt marshes that were negatively impacted by tidal restrictions. We evaluated a planned tidal restoration at Mill Brook Marsh (New Hampshire) and at Drakes Island Marsh (Maine) where partial tidal restoration inadvertently occurred. Salt marsh functions were evaluated in both marshes to determine the impacts from tidal restriction and the responses following restoration. Physical and biological indicators of salt marsh functions (tidal range, surface elevations, soil water levels and salinities, plant cover, and fish use) were measured and compared to those from nonimpounded reference sites. Common impacts from tidal restrictions at both sites were: loss of tidal flooding, declines in surface elevation, reduced soil salinity, replacement of salt marsh vegetation by fresh and brackish plants, and loss of fish use of the marsh.Water levels, soil salinities and fish use increased immediately following tidal restoration. Salt-intolerant vegetation was killed within months. After two years, mildly salt-tolerant vegetation had been largely replaced in Mill Brook Marsh by several species characteristic of both high and low salt marshes. Eight years after the unplanned, partial tidal restoration at Drakes Island Marsh, the vegetation was dominated bySpartina alterniflora, a characteristic species of low marsh habitat.Hydrologic restoration that allowed for unrestricted saltwater exchange at Mill Brook restored salt marsh functions relatively quickly in comparison to the partial tidal restoration at Drakes Island, where full tidal exchange was not achieved. The irregular tidal regime at Drakes Island resulted in vegetation cover and patterns dissimilar to those of the high marsh used as a reference. The proper hydrologic regime (flooding height, duration and frequency) is essential to promote the rapid recovery of salt marsh functions. We predict that functional recovery will be relatively quick at Mill Brook, but believe that the habitat at Drakes Island will not become equivalent to that of the reference marsh unless the hydrology is further modified.Corresponding Editor: R.E. Turner Manuseript     

Ecological responses to tidal restorations of two northern New England salt marshes

Efforts are underway to restore tidal flow in New England salt marshes that were negatively impacted by tidal restrictions. We evaluated a planned tidal restoration at Mill Brook Marsh (New Hampshire) and at Drakes Island Marsh (Maine) where partial tidal restoration inadvertently occurred. Salt marsh functions were evaluated in both marshes to determine the impacts from tidal restriction and the responses following restoration. Physical and biological indicators of salt marsh functions (tidal range, surface elevations, soil water levels and salinities, plant cover, and fish use) were measured and compared to those from nonimpounded reference sites. Common impacts from tidal restrictions at both sites were: loss of tidal flooding, declines in surface elevation, reduced soil salinity, replacement of salt marsh vegetation by fresh and brackish plants, and loss of fish use of the marsh. Water levels, soil salinities and fish use increased immediately following tidal restoration. Salt-intolerant vegetation was killed within months. After two years, mildly salt-tolerant vegetation had been largely replaced in Mill Brook Marsh by several species characteristic of both high and low salt marshes. Eight years after the unplanned, partial tidal restoration at Drakes Island Marsh, the vegetation was dominated bySpartina alterniflora, a characteristic species of low marsh habitat. Hydrologic restoration that allowed for unrestricted saltwater exchange at Mill Brook restored salt marsh functions relatively quickly in comparison to the partial tidal restoration at Drakes Island, where full tidal exchange was not achieved. The irregular tidal regime at Drakes Island resulted in vegetation cover and patterns dissimilar to those of the high marsh used as a reference. The proper hydrologic regime (flooding height, duration and frequency) is essential to promote the rapid recovery of salt marsh functions. We predict that functional recovery will be relatively quick at Mill Brook, but believe that the habitat at Drakes Island will not become equivalent to that of the reference marsh unless the hydrology is further modified.     

Power analysis to determine sample size for monitoring vegetation change in salt marsh habitats

Numerous initiatives are underway throughout New England and elsewhere to quantify salt marsh vegetation change, mostly in response to habitat restoration, sea level rise, and nutrient enrichment. To detect temporal changes in vegetation at a marsh or to compare vegetation among different marshes with a degree of statistical certainty an adequate sample size is required. Based on sampling 1 m² vegetation plots from 11 New England salt marsh data sets, we conducted a power analysis to determine the minimum number of samples that were necessary to detect change between vegetation communities. Statistical power was determined for sample sizes of 5, 10, 15, and 20 vegetation plots at an alpha level of 0.05. Detection of subtle differences between vegetation data sets (e.g., comparing vegetation in the same marsh over two consecutive years) can be accomplished using a sample size of 20 plots with a reasonable probability of detecting a difference when one truly exists. With a lower sample size, and thus lower power, there is an increased probability of not detecting a difference when one exists (e.g., Type II error). However, if investigators expect to detect major changes in vegetation (e.g., such as those between an un-impacted and a highly impacted marsh) then a sample size of 5, 10, or 15 plots may be appropriate while still maintaining adequate power. Due to the relative ease of collecting vegetation data, we suggest a minimum sample size of 20 randomly located 1 m² plots when developing monitoring designs to detect vegetation community change of salt marshes. The sample size of 20 plots per New England salt marsh is appropriate regardless of marsh size or permanency (permanent or non-permanent) of the plots.     

盐城海滨湿地盐沼植被对土壤碳氮分布特征的影响

在盐城海滨湿地不同植被带下采集土壤样品,研究了土壤有机碳和全氮的空间分布特征,分析了盐沼植物对湿地土壤碳、氮分布的影响.结果表明：在盐城海滨湿地,表层土壤中有机碳和全氮含量分别介于1.71～7.92 g·kg^-1和0.17～0.36 g·kg^-1之间,变幅较大,不同植被带之间存在显著差异,且各植被带表层土壤中有机碳、全氮含量均高于光滩.垂直方向上,各植被带土壤中有机碳、全氮的分布均呈自表向下逐渐降低的趋势,15 cm以下其含量基本保持稳定.土壤有机碳与全氮、碳氮比呈显著正相关,但全氮与碳氮比无显著相关性.     

盐城海滨湿地盐沼植被对土壤碳氮分布特征的影响

在盐城海滨湿地不同植被带下采集土壤样品,研究了土壤有机碳和全氮的空间分布特征,分析了盐沼植物对湿地土壤碳、氮分布的影响.结果表明：在盐城海滨湿地,表层土壤中有机碳和全氮含量分别介于1.71～7.92 g·kg^-1和0.17～0.36 g·kg^-1之间,变幅较大,不同植被带之间存在显著差异,且各植被带表层土壤中有机碳、全氮含量均高于光滩.垂直方向上,各植被带土壤中有机碳、全氮的分布均呈自表向下逐渐降低的趋势,15 cm以下其含量基本保持稳定.土壤有机碳与全氮、碳氮比呈显著正相关,但全氮与碳氮比无显著相关性.     

Effects of landscape setting on oyster reef structure and function largely persist more than a decade post‐restoration

Long‐term monitoring is vital to understanding the efficacy of restoration approaches and how restoration may enhance ecosystem functions. We revisited restored oyster reefs 13 years post‐restoration and quantified the resident and transient fauna that utilize restored reefs in three differing landscape contexts: on mudflats isolated from vegetated habitat, along the edge of salt marsh, and in between seagrass and salt marsh habitat. Differences observed 1–2 years post‐restoration in reef development and associated fauna within reefs restored on mudflats versus adjacent to seagrass/salt marsh and salt marsh‐only habitats persisted more than 10 years post‐restoration. Reefs constructed on open mudflat habitats had the highest densities of oysters and resident invertebrates compared to those in other landscape contexts, although all restored reefs continued to enhance local densities of invertebrate taxa (e.g. bivalves, gastropods, decapods, polychaetes, etc.). Catch rates of juvenile fishes were enhanced on restored reefs relative to controls, but to a lesser extent than directly post‐restoration, potentially because the reefs have grown vertically within the intertidal and out of the preferred inundation regime of small juvenile fishes. Reef presence and landscape setting did not augment the catch rates of piscivorous fishes in passive gill nets, similar to initial findings; however, hook‐and‐line catch rates were greater on restored reefs than non‐reef controls. We conclude that ecosystem functions and associated services provided by restored habitats can vary both spatially and temporally; therefore, a better understanding of how service delivery varies among landscape setting and over time should enhance efforts to model these processes and restoration decision‐making.     

The protective role of coastal marshes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Salt marshes lie between many human communities and the coast and have been presumed to protect these communities from coastal hazards by providing important ecosystem services. However, previous characterizations of these ecosystem services have typically been based on a small number of historical studies, and the consistency and extent to which marshes provide these services has not been investigated. Here, we review the current evidence for the specific processes of wave attenuation, shoreline stabilization and floodwater attenuation to determine if and under what conditions salt marshes offer these coastal protection services.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We conducted a thorough search and synthesis of the literature with reference to these processes. Seventy-five publications met our selection criteria, and we conducted meta-analyses for publications with sufficient data available for quantitative analysis. We found that combined across all studies (n = 7), salt marsh vegetation had a significant positive effect on wave attenuation as measured by reductions in wave height per unit distance across marsh vegetation. Salt marsh vegetation also had a significant positive effect on shoreline stabilization as measured by accretion, lateral erosion reduction, and marsh surface elevation change (n = 30). Salt marsh characteristics that were positively correlated to both wave attenuation and shoreline stabilization were vegetation density, biomass production, and marsh size. Although we could not find studies quantitatively evaluating floodwater attenuation within salt marshes, there are several studies noting the negative effects of wetland alteration on water quantity regulation within coastal areas.

Conclusions/Significance

Our results show that salt marshes have value for coastal hazard mitigation and climate change adaptation. Because we do not yet fully understand the magnitude of this value, we propose that decision makers employ natural systems to maximize the benefits and ecosystem services provided by salt marshes and exercise caution when making decisions that erode these services.     

Biotic interactions mediate the expansion of black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) into salt marshes under climate change

Many species are expanding their distributions to higher latitudes due to global warming. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these distribution shifts is critical for better understanding the impacts of climate changes. The climate envelope approach is widely used to model and predict species distribution shifts with changing climates. Biotic interactions between species, however, may also influence species distributions, and a better understanding of biotic interactions could improve predictions based solely on climate envelope models. Along the northern Gulf of Mexico coast, USA, subtropical black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) at the northern limit of its distribution grows sympatrically with temperate salt marsh plants in Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. In recent decades, freeze‐free winters have led to an expansion of black mangrove into salt marshes. We examined how biotic interactions between black mangrove and salt marsh vegetation along the Texas coast varied across (i) a latitudinal gradient (associated with a winter‐temperature gradient); (ii) the elevational gradient within each marsh (which creates different marsh habitats); and (iii) different life history stages of black mangroves (seedlings vs. juvenile trees). Each of these variables affected the strength or nature of biotic interactions between black mangrove and salt marsh vegetation: (i) Salt marsh vegetation facilitated black mangrove seedlings at their high‐latitude distribution limit, but inhibited black mangrove seedlings at lower latitudes; (ii) mangroves performed well at intermediate elevations, but grew and survived poorly in high‐ and low‐marsh habitats; and (iii) the effect of salt marsh vegetation on black mangroves switched from negative to neutral as black mangroves grew from seedlings into juvenile trees. These results indicate that the expansion of black mangroves is mediated by complex biotic interactions. A better understanding of the impacts of climate change on ecological communities requires incorporating context‐dependent biotic interactions into species range models.     

盐城海滨湿地盐沼植被及农作物下土壤酶活性特征

在盐城海滨湿地盐沼植被和农田内采集土壤样品,测定了4种土壤酶(脲酶、转化酶、过氧化氢酶和碱性磷酸酶)的活性,分析了盐沼植被、农作物及土壤理化因子对土壤酶活性的影响。结果表明:由海滨湿地滩涂围垦形成的各类农田其土壤酶活性较高,且均高于湿地盐沼植被;湿地盐沼植被下4种土壤酶活性均高于无植被生长的光滩,且不同类型植被间土壤酶活性差异显著;4种酶的活性大小总体表现为大豆(Glycine max)地棉花(Gossypium hirsutum)地玉米(Zea mays)地互花米草(Spartina alterniflora)滩白茅(Imperata cylindrica var.major)滩碱蓬(Suaeda salsa)滩光滩。相关分析表明,4种土壤酶之间及其与土壤有机碳、全氮均表现出显著正相关,而与土壤盐分、pH值之间存在显著负相关。海滨湿地盐沼植被的发育扩展不仅增加了土壤中的养分含量,也提高了土壤酶活性。     

长江河口潮间带盐沼植被分布区及邻近光滩鱼类组成特征

研究鱼类群落在不同生境中的差异或者变化,是评价与预测生境丧失、环境退化等对湿地生物多样性与生态系统功能影响的重要基础。2006年4—11月,在长江河口崇明东滩盐沼植被分布区(简称草滩)和邻近的光滩区域分别设置采样站位,每月大潮期采用定制插网对鱼类群落进行了取样调查。分析研究了长江河口潮间带盐沼植被分布区和邻近光滩区域的鱼类组成及其月际变化,并对影响鱼类分布的主要因子进行了探讨。调查期间共采集鱼类标本1638尾,分属9目14科22种;其中,淡水鱼类2种,定居性河口鱼类12种,海洋鱼类5种,洄游鱼类3种。植被分布区和光滩区域鱼类组成及优势种特征存在明显差异。调查期间,植被分布区记录鱼类13种,主要优势种为斑尾刺虾虎鱼(Acanthogobius ommaturus)、鲻(Mugil cephalus)和棱鮻(Liza carinatus)(IRI>20),其他种类基本不具有优势度特征(IRI<0.05);光滩区域记录鱼类20种,主要优势种鲻(IRI>20),其他包括斑尾刺虾虎鱼、狼牙鳗虾虎鱼(Taenioides rubicundus)、棱鮻和棘头梅童鱼(Collichthys lucidus)也具有一定的优势特征(20>IRI>10);两个区域共有种为11种,部分种类只出现在光滩或植被分布区,但主要优势种均为定居性河口鱼类。与世界其他河口盐沼湿地鱼类研究结果不同的是,光滩区域记录的鱼类物种数、个体数、生物量和整体物种多样性水平均高于植被分布区;光滩和植被分布区鱼类相应的量比关系存在明显的月际变化,但两种生境鱼类组成间的关联性和差异性均不显著。通过比较两种生境共有的优势种体长发现,长江河口盐沼植被分布区鱼类优势种的平均体长大于光滩区域,而且植被分布区部分优势种体长的上、下限范围也大于光滩区域。长江河口盐沼植被分布区,除了育幼场外,还是许多鱼类成鱼的重要栖息地。影响河口潮间带盐沼湿地鱼类组成与分布的主要因素包括鱼类自身的生物学与生活史特征、饵料生物的组成与分布、植被出现与表形特征等生物因素和水温、盐度、淡水径流、潮汐特性等非生物因素,其对长江河口潮间带盐沼湿地中鱼类群落的组成与分布的综合作用机理有待进一步研究。     

Are spring staging brent geese evicted by vegetation succession?

The number of spring staging brent geese on the salt marshes of the Dutch island of Schiermonnikoog increased from about 1500 individuals in the late 1960s to > 4000 in the late 1970s. Since then, numbers on Schiermonnikoog have levelled off, while the world population continued to increase. Although the extent of salt-marsh area on the island has dramatically increased over the past 20 yr, the number of brent geese on Schiermonnikoog was rather constant in this period. We hypothesise that the number of geese did not increase because of successional changes in the vegetation.
On the basis of 24 yr of counts, we show that geese had to give up older parts of the marsh. Over time, tall growing species like the shrub Atriplex portulacoides have invaded, making the marsh unsuitable for goose grazing. Newly developed marsh, however, was readily exploited by the geese. The area of older salt marsh lost due to succession was almost exactly compensated for by the development of new feeding grounds. Geese which persistently utilised the older marsh were faced with a high proportion of non-preferred species, although they still managed to assemble a diet largely composed of preferred plant species. In the older marsh, a significant reduction in the time spent foraging was also observed. We conclude that brent geese are largely excluded as vegetation succession progresses. Numbers on the island as a whole, however, are sustained due to the dynamic nature of the island. If development of new salt marshes were to be prevented, geese would be forced to abandon the salt marsh.     

Is the salt marsh vegetation a determining factor in the sedimentation processes?

Many authors have referred to the important role of vegetation in the consolidation of salt marsh sediments, but experiments previously carried out by us have shown results that do not always agree with these statements. In other words, the type of salt marsh surface coverage is not the main factor that contributes to the consolidation of sediments. To test this hypothesis different Portuguese salt marsh stations (species/unvegetated areas) from two sites, Tagus estuary (Corroios and Pancas) and Ria de Aveiro (Barra and Verdemilho), were compared to evaluate their influence on suspended matter deposition on the salt marsh surface. A short-term sedimentation study was performed within stands of Spartina maritima, Halimione portulacoides, Sarcocornia perennis subsp. perennis and unvegetated areas, by analysing the deposition of sediment material on nylon filters anchored to the marsh surface. Numerical results obtained from hydrodynamic models coupled to a Lagrangean module implemented for the Ria de Aveiro and the Tagus Estuary, namely the root-mean square velocity (V _rms) and residual velocity of tides, were also used. Average sedimentation rates (mean value between the different surface cover in a salt marsh) showed a seasonal trend more or less defined but with significantly different values between sites and salt marshes. Sedimentation rates varied between marshes: there are significant differences between Pancas and the other three marshes, but only significant differences in sedimentation rates between Spartina and Sarcocornia. Despite the important role of vegetation in the consolidation of salt marsh sediments, our results suggest that, the position of stations and related abiotic conditions in the salt marshes are determining factors of variation to take into account in the studies related with the stabilization and survival of salt marshes facing sea level rise. Handling editor: P. Viaroli     

Role of biotic interactions and physical factors in determining the distribution of marsh species along an estuarine salinity gradient

Understanding the mechanisms that shape plant distribution patterns is a major goal in ecology. We investigated the role of biotic interactions (competition and facilitation) and abiotic factors in creating horizontal plant zonation along salinity gradients in the Elbe estuary. We conducted reciprocal transplant experiments with four dominant species from salt and tidal freshwater marshes at two tidal elevations. Ten individuals of each species were transplanted as sods to the opposing marsh type and within their native marsh (two sites each). Transplants were placed at the centre of 9‐m² plots along a line parallel to the river bank. In order to disentangle abiotic and biotic influences, we set up plots with and without neighbouring vegetation, resulting in five replicates per site. Freshwater species (Bolboschoenus maritimus and Phragmites australis) transplanted to salt marshes performed poorly regardless of whether neighbouring vegetation was present or not, although 50–70% of the transplants did survive. Growth of Phragmites transplants was impaired also by competition in freshwater marshes. Salt marsh species (Spartina anglica and Puccinellia maritima) had extremely low biomass when transplanted to freshwater marshes and 80–100% died in the presence of neighbours. Without neighbours, biomass of salt marsh species in freshwater marshes was similar to or higher than that in salt marshes. Our results indicate that salt marsh species are precluded from freshwater marshes by competition, whereas freshwater species are excluded from salt marshes by physical stress. Thus, our study provides the first experimental evidence from a European estuary for the general theory that species boundaries along environmental gradients are determined by physical factors towards the harsh end and by competitive ability towards the benign end of the gradient. We generally found no significant impact of competition in salt marshes, indicating a shift in the importance of competition along the estuarine gradient.     

Spatial and temporal changes in salt marsh distribution in the Dee estuary,NW England,determined from aerial photographs

Vegetation changes in salt marsh communities of the Dee estuary, northwest England, were analysed with a combination of remote sensing techniques using data dating back to the 1950s. The distribution of communities in 1997 was classified using Airborne Thematic Mapper data and used to develop a methodology for the analysis of black and white photographs of the marsh. These methods were then applied retrogressively to a time sequence of monochrome photographs running from 1955 to 1975. At the apex of the salt marshes on the English shore of the Dee estuary, the marsh expanded dramatically to 1975, and consisted predominantly of pioneer and low marsh vegetation types. Between 1975 and 1997, however, there was only a slight increase in salt marsh area, but with an increase in mid and high marsh vegetation, replacing pioneer marsh. In a second area of the salt marsh on the English shore, a different pattern of salt marsh expansion was observed. The area occupied by marsh continued to increase right up to 1997, with extensive pioneer vegetation suggesting a process of continuing expansion. However, the pattern of marsh colonisation appeared to be different in 1997 compared to 1975. The significance of the changes in salt marsh distribution within the Dee estuary are discussed in relation to the historical pattern of salt marsh colonisation, the importance of Spartina anglica in the process and the implications for strategic management of the estuarine resources.     

Restoration of the Sieperda Tidal Marsh in the Scheldt Estuary, The Netherlands

Because of land reclamation, reinforcement of dikes, and the deepening of shipping channels, large areas of tidal marshes have been removed or eroded from the Scheldt estuary during the last two centuries. Tidal wetland restoration contributes toward compensating this loss of habitat. Not all restoration projects are meticulously planned, however; some are forced by nature. During a severe storm in 1990, a dike was breached in the brackish part of the Scheldt estuary and returned tidal influence to the Sieperda polder. In the 10 years since the dike breach, the former polder has changed into a brackish tidal marsh. Here we report on the geomorphologic and ecological developments that have taken place in the marsh. Tidal intrusion into the former polder turned crop fields into mudflats and changed pastures into salty marsh vegetation. The digging of a new creek improved marsh hydrology and enhanced tidal intrusion further into the marsh. Macrofauna typical of estuarine mudflats established rapidly in the developing marsh. Vegetation succession took place rapidly. Within 5 years, large areas of mudflats became covered with marsh vegetation. Birds characteristic of salt marshes were observed breeding or seen foraging in the marsh. The number of wading birds declined as areas of mudflat became overgrown. It is demonstrated that tidal flow is the engine to tidal marsh restoration. Tidal influence caused geomorphologic changes, which directed ecological developments in the former polder.