Arsenic in groundwater and its health risk assessment in drinking water of Mailsi,Punjab, Pakistan

The present study was aimed at assessing drinking water quality regarding arsenic (As) and its impact on health from Mailsi (Punjab), Pakistan. Forty-four groundwater samples were collected from two sites, Sargana and Mailsi. Arsenic and other cations were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer, whereas the anions were determined either through titration or spectrophotometer. The results revealed that dominant anions were HCO₃^? and Cl^?, Ca⁺² was the dominant cation, and overall water chemistry of the area was CaMgHCO₃^? type. Arsenic concentrations were high, ranging from 11 to 828 µg/L that crossed the World Health Organization permissible limits. Likewise, higher SO₄^?2 concentrations ranging from 247 to 1053 mg/L were observed. The health risk index was higher in the Sargana site, which employed the differences in terms of higher Average Daily Dose, Hazard Quotient, and Carcinogenic Risk of arsenic, which is unsuitable for drinking purposes. The area seems to be at high risk due to arsenic pollution and wells have never been tested for arsenic concentrations earlier; therefore, necessary measures should be taken to test the wells with respect to arsenic.     

Arsenic and heavy metals health risk assessment through drinking water consumption in the Peshawar District,Pakistan

This study aimed to assess the drinking water quality and human potential health risk in Peshawar, which is the most populous district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. Water was randomly collected throughout Peshawar District (urban = 45 samples and rural = 29 samples). These samples were analyzed for heavy metal (As, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn) concentrations using the atomic absorption spectrometer (Perkin Elmer, AAS-PEA-700). Heavy metal concentrations in drinking water revealed the highest pollution index (PI) values—17.80, 11.92, 7.50, and 5.70 for the Pb, Cr, Cd, and Ni, respectively. The contaminations of Cd and Pb were significantly higher (p < .05) than their maximum allowable limits set by the World Health Organization. Heavy metal contaminations in drinking water were evaluated for health risk assessment: the chronic risk or hazard quotient (HQ) and cancer risk. Results revealed that HQ values were >1 for the Cd and Pb, suggesting that the exposed human beings could be at chronic risk. Therefore, serious measures such as drinking water treatments and contamination controlling policies are needed to avoid the hazardous effects of toxic heavy metals.     

Assessment of potentially toxic heavy metals and health risk in water,sediments, and different fish species of River Kabul,Pakistan

Contamination of freshwater bodies and consequently freshwater fish with toxic heavy metals is a serious environmental issue. The trophic transfer of potentially toxic heavy metals in the human food chains, especially in fish has important implications for human health. The present research study was designed to assess the concentrations of the heavy metals Cr, Ni, Cd, and Pb in the water, sediments, and different freshwater fish species of River Kabul, Pakistan. The heavy metals were quantified in the samples with Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Heavy metal contamination in fish muscles was characterized in terms of metal pollution index and biota-sediments accumulation factor, while human health risk was assessed through calculation of estimated weekly intake. The average concentrations of Cr, Ni, Cd, and Pb in muscle samples of the analyzed fish species at different sampling sites of the river ranged from 12.3 to 33.0, 33.2 to 109.2, 0.98 to 1.5, and 13.9 to 29.6 mg kg^?1 wet weight, respectively. Based on the current study data, consumption of the analyzed freshwater fish species from River Kabul was generally safe in terms of potential risk from Cd and Pb but the observed Ni accumulation may pose a potential health risk to regular/excessive fish consumers.     

Heavy metal contamination and health risk assessment in drinking water of Sistan and Baluchistan,Southeastern Iran

Access to safe and clean drinking water is an essential element of healthy life also known as the primary human needs. The present study was conducted to investigate heavy metal (HM) concentrations of drinking water. Excess health risk of HM (Cr, Pb, and Cd) intake is related to the drinking water consumption in local population. HMs concentrations were analyzed by using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometer and were compared with permissible limits regulated by country and World Health Organization (WHO). The hazard quotient (HQ) and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk (ELCR) were determined to show the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of HMs, respectively. HQs were found in the order of Pb > Cd > Cr and subsequently HI index was also estimated for all HM in two age groups (children and adults). The comparisons indicate no possibility of non-carcinogenic effects to the local population. The values for ELCR were found in the order of Cr > Cd > Pb. The ELCR index was found above acceptable risk levels for chromium and cadmium in both children and adults groups. Furthermore, intermetal correlation results revealed that heavy metals have common sources resulting from geogenic and anthropogenic activities and these are major sources of water contamination in Sistan and Baluchestan province.     

Health risk assessment due to exposure of arsenic contamination in drinking water of district Shiekhupura,Punjab, Pakistan

Abstract

The present study was conducted to assess the magnitude and health impacts of As in drinking water. Drinking water samples (n?=?60) were collected from twenty different sites of Shiekhupura District (Pakistan). Health risk assessment through average daily dose (ADD), hazard indices (HI), hazard quotient (HQ), carcinogenic risk (CR), and cancer indices (CI) for dermal and oral exposure were determined. Results revealed that As concentration ranged from 2 to 900?µg?L^?1 in water samples, which was significantly greater than the safe limit of As (10?µg?L^?1) in water. Health risk assessment of As showed that ADD (1.07E?02–9.85E?04), HQ (1.06E+01–9.85E+00), and CR (1.60E?02–9.85E?04) for oral exposure and ADD (1.03E?05–9.69E?06), HQ (1.19E?02–7.96E?03), and CR (1.11E?05–8.98E?05) for dermal exposure which were exceeded the toxic risk index value. Comparison of the two exposure pathways indicated that the oral exposure is much higher risk than the dermal contact. Both values of HI and CI were greater than WHO limit. It is concluded that residents of study area are at higher risk of As induced diseases and carcinogenicity.     

Recognition of the prioritized types and individual of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the drinking water of Shanghai and a health risk assessment

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) exist and are often grouped into categories according to their functional mechanism and effect on human health. In this study, six types of PPCPs were detected and characterized in the drinking water of Shanghai, covering 35 water treatment plants. The PPCPs concentrations were ranged from 2.57 ng/L to 19.4 ng/L and over 10 ng/L in nearly half of the samples. Hormones, blockers, and veterinary drugs were considered to contribute negligibly to the overall pollution from PPCPs for their low concentrations. However, dicyclohexylamine and psycholeptics were detected in all samples, with a maximum concentration of 11.8 ng/L, 7.82 ng/L, and 9.07 ng/L for dicyclohexylamine, sertraline, and sulpiride, respectively. In addition, high toxicity antitumor drug cyclophosphamide was detected in one-third of the samples and the highest concentration was 3.72 ng/L.

In all, the four PPCPs evaluated accounted for over 80% of the detected PPCPs levels. Therefore, it was determined that the major PPCPs are contributing to water pollution in the region. While these compounds do not pose a potential human health risk at their present levels, close attention should be paid to the use of these PPCPs and their discharge into drinking water source.     

Assessment of water quality and health risks for toxic trace elements in urban Phewa and remote Gosainkunda lakes,Nepal

The concentration of 13 metals (Al, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Pb, and Hg) and their associated health risk assessment was performed for two Himalayan lakes, urban Phewa and remote Gosainkunda, from Nepal. Water Quality Index (WQI), Metal Index (MI), Hazard Quotient (HQ), Hazard Index, and Cancer Risk were calculated in order to evaluate the water quality of these lakes. Correlation analysis revealed that Mn and Fe were derived from natural geological weathering processes and Pb, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Cd might have originated from anthropogenic sources. The results revealed that WQI of the remote lake fell into excellent water quality and urban lake fell into poor water quality, which is also supported by the MI calculation. Moreover, the HQ of Mn in urban lake showed values greater than unity suggesting its health risk to the local inhabitants. The cancer index values indicated “high” risk due to Cr, whereas Cd possesses “very low” cancer risk on local population residing nearby areas. This study provides the useful database and suggests for the regular assessment and policy formulation for safeguarding the natural water bodies in the region.     

Monitoring of arsenic in drinking water of high schools and assessment of carcinogenic health risk in Multan,Pakistan

Abstract

This study was performed to measure arsenic (As) contents in groundwater/drinking water of high schools and its effects on human health. Chronic daily intake, hazardous quotient (HQ), carcinogenic risk (CR), hazardous index (HI), and carcinogenic indices (CI) for oral and dermal exposure to arsenic were calculated. Samples were taken from high schools in four tehsils of Multan. As contents ranged from 3.25 to 184?µg/l and 99% samples exceeded World Health Organization safe limit (10?µg/l). HQ for Multan city (1.70) and for Multan Saddar (1.38) exceeded USEPA permissible toxic risk value (1.0). CR in four tehsils for oral (0.0001–0.0003) and dermal exposure (0.0000049–0.000011) exceeded USEPA limit (10^?6). HI for tehsil Multan city (1.75) and Multan Saddar (1.42) exceeded the limit (1.0). CI for four tehsils ranged from 0.00022 to 0.0008 exceeding USEPA limit (10^?6) indicating high chronic and carcinogenic health risk to exposed population. Results indicated that groundwater of district Multan is not fit for human consumption due to excessive arsenic contamination. It invites attention of water supplying agency and educational authorities to take steps for provision of arsenic free safe drinking water to students and local area peoples.     

Integrated risk assessment of potentially toxic elements and particle pollution in urban road dust of megacity of Pakistan

Abstract

Potentially toxic elements and particulate matter (PM) in the ecosystem are regarded as extremely hazardous because of their persistence, toxicity and bioaccumulative characteristics. Therefore, present study was conducted to estimate the ecological and human health risks of potentially toxic elements (Cu, Mn, Pb, Cd and Ni) and particle pollution (TSP, PM₁₀ and PM_2.5) at 2 and 60 m roadside distance from 15 different sites at dust polluted megacity of Pakistan. The AQI assessments suggested that the majority of sites were found unhealthy for sensitive at 2 and 60 m roadside distance, which reveals that that quality of road pavement and streets are far below than the required standards resulting huge quantity of dust particles suspended in air by natural and anthropogenic activities. The maximum geo-accumulation index (I _geo) values (1.47 and 0.52) and pollution index (PI) values (4.18 and 2.15) were observed for Ni at 2 and 60 m distance away from the muddy edge of the roads. Similarly, maximum contamination factor (CF) values (24.5 and 94.5) and ecological risk index (ERI) values (4.11 and 3.15) were found for Cd at 2 and 60 m. The I _geo and PI indicated that the road dust at a distance of 2 m was relatively more contaminated as compared to 60 m roadside distance. Highest cancer risk (CR) values (2.33 adult and 10.9 for children) were observed for Pb at 2 m, while highest CR values (1.21 for adult and 5.67 for children) at 60 m distance. No probable health risk was observed as the total hazard index (HIexp) of all potentially toxic elements was <1. However, children were appeared to be more susceptible to potentially toxic elements. Based on the results, we believe that the exponential increase in traffic load and industries have aggravated the pollution level and it is expected to be increased in the future.     

Investigations of the chemical distribution of heavy metals in street dust and its impact on risk assessment for human health,case study of Radom (Poland)

Abstract

This work investigated the ecological and health hazards caused by heavy metals present in urban street dust of Radom (Poland). The objectives of this study were to improve the estimation of exposure doses of toxic metals based on their distribution patterns in street dusts and to assess the noncarcinogenic health risk for the residents. Zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and lead (Pb) were mainly associated with the reducible fraction, copper (Cu) with the oxidizable fraction, and iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), and chromium (Cr) with the residual fraction. The contents of short-term and long-term labile fractions of the metals were used to assess a direct health risk, a potential health risk and an overall human health risk. The level of the overall risk quantified by the cumulative total labile fraction-HI (tlf-HI^c ): 3.91E-01 (children) and 3.85E-02 (adults) was lower than the safety limit of unity. The metal that contributed the most to the overall health risk was Pb: 34% (children) and 31% (adults), while Zn and Ni had the least contribution (3% and 2% for both children and adults). It was shown that the risk assessment based on the pseudo-total content of metals can overestimate the health risk by nearly two times when compared to the assessments based on the total content of labile fractions.     

Spatial distribution and seasonal variation in fluoride enrichment in groundwater and its associated human health risk assessment in Telangana State,South India

Groundwater is a vital source of drinking water in Siddipet rural and urban regions of Central Telangana, South India and it is a major cause of fluoride toxicity in humans. The intake of elevated fluoride has a significant impact on human health, especially immediate problems that are seen in children's teeth. The primary aim of the study was to identify the seasonal variation in fluoride concentration and associated health risks in the residents of the study region. To assess the fluoride contamination in groundwater, a total of 158 samples were analyzed in two seasons. The mean concentrations of fluoride 1.26 mg/L and 2.21 mg/L were 1.46 and 2.8 times higher than the acceptable limit of 1.5 mg/L, before and after monsoon respectively. To estimate the human health risks due to the ingestion of elevated fluoride through drinking water, hazard quotient fluoride (HQ_Fluoride) was calculated using the United States Environmental Protection Agency method. HQ_Fluoride values were 0.44–2.44 and 0.89–4.67 for children, 0.36–2.00 and 0.73–3.82 for females, and 0.41–2.26 and 0.82–4.31 for males in pre- and post-monsoon seasons respectively, suggesting emphatically greater risk than the acceptable limits (HQ_Fluoride > 1), which generates health risks.     

Spatial distribution,exposure, and potential health risk assessment from nitrate in drinking water from semi-arid region of South India

Abstract

Elevated nitrate concentration in groundwater is a worldwide problem. Continuous exposure to high levels of nitrate in groundwater may cause adverse health effects among residents who use groundwater for consumption. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify the nitrate distribution and its potential health risk assessment from semi-arid region of Peddavagu in Central Telangana (PCT), South India. Groundwater samples were collected from thirty five locations and analyzed for nitrate and other water quality parameters. Nitrate (NO₃^-) in groundwater was observed to vary from 17 to 120?mg/L, with a mean of 58.74?mg/L. About 57% of samples exceeded the maximum acceptable limit of Indian drinking water standard. About, 40% of groundwater samples drinking water quality index (DWQI) is good, while 60% of groundwater falls in poor quality for drinking purposes. Health risk maps were created based on hazard quotient to quantify the potential health risk of the residents using US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) health risk assessment model. Health risk assessment revealed that mean total hazard index (HI_total) for men, women, and children were found as 1.42E?+?00, 1.67E?+?00, and 1.95E?+?00, respectively. Results exhibited that children are at high health risk than men and women in the PCT. Further, the human exposure to the NO₃^- contaminated water was above the critical limit of non-carcinogenic risk.     

Health risk assessment of fluoride in water distribution network of Mashhad,Iran

High and low levels of fluoride in drinking waters have been considered as a major public health issue in recent years. This cross-sectional study was conducted over five consecutive years (from 2012 to 2016) in the water distribution network of Mashhad city, Iran with the objectives of determining levels of fluoride and to perform health risk assessment among residents in the study area. Water samples were taken from 30 stations and were analyzed using UV-visible spectrophotometer. The mean annual concentrations of fluoride in all stations during five years of consecutive study were lower than the respective maximum permissible limits (1.5 mg/L) in water as regulated by the WHO. The human health risk assessment was performed by calculating the chronic daily intake and hazard quotient (HQ) of fluoride through human oral intake for adults (men and women) and children for each year during a five-year study. Health risk analysis in this study presented that the non-carcinogenic risk associated with fluoride exposure through drinking water in Mashhad was mostly acceptable because the mean HQ values of fluoride were lower than 1.     

Distribution of heavy metals in soils and vegetables and health risk assessment in the vicinity of three contaminated sites in Guangdong Province,China

Due to rapid industrialization and urbanization, human activities like industrial and agricultural production, transportation, aggravate heavy metal pollution in soil and continue to endanger vegetables and human health. In this study, three contaminated areas affected by heavy metal pollution in Guangdong Province were investigated in terms of Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd concentrations in soil and vegetables. Further analyses of the contamination status and potential risks to the health of residents consuming these vegetables were conducted. Results showed the following average heavy metal concentrations in vegetables and soil: Shaoguan > Guangzhou > Dongguan, indicating that mining has caused massive soil-heavy metal pollution. The heavy metal concentrations and Bioconcentration factors (BCFs) showed the following trend: leaf-vegetables > fruit-vegetables > root-vegetables, and those of vegetable type were as follows: Cd > Zn > Cu > Pb. The Nemero pollution index (PI) of all research region soils and hazard index (HI) exceeded 1. Hence, more attention should be paid to the potential for adverse health effects caused by the consumption of vegetables produced in these sites . Thus, effective measures are encouraged, with a focus on children due to their vulnerability to these heavy metals.     

Bioaccumulation and health risks of heavy metals associated with consumption of rice grains from croplands in Northern India

The present study focused on micronutrients and nonessential toxic heavy metals quantification and their bio-concentration in soil–rice system in Haryana, India. Composite samples of rice grains and paddy fields' soil were collected, processed and analyzed for heavy metals. Nutrient and heavy metals' content of paddy fields' soil varied over a wide range, having highest Fe content followed by Cu > Cr > Pb > Ni > Zn > Co > Cd. Most of the metals viz. Fe, Zn, Cu and Co found profusely in rice grains were essential micronutrients. Bio-concentration factors (BCFs) in rice grains were in the following order: Zn (0.11) > Co (0.10) > Cu (0.08) = Cr (0.08) > Ni (0.02) > Pb (0.011) > Cd (0.009) > Fe (0.003), indicating higher accumulation of micronutrients than non-essential toxic heavy metals. Principal component analysis revealed three factors accounting for 70% of the total variance which supported correlation among electrical conductivity (EC)-Na, EC-cation exchange capacity (CEC), CEC-Na, pH-TOC, and BCF_Cu-BCF_Zn. Health risk indices anticipated that the grains are safe for consumption as non-carcinogenic hazard quotients were less than unity for all the studied heavy metals.     

Use of the reference dose in risk characterization of drinking water contaminants

Regulatory decisions should be made in the most expert and informed way since they are precipitated by real and perceived threats to public health, under the glare of public scrutiny. The development of environmental regulations require a three‐step paradigm, collectively called risk analysis. This paper will address the risk assessment practices required under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments of 1986 to determine a Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG, nonenforceable health goal) which should result in no known or anticipated health effects, and allows adequate margin of safety. The end product of this risk assessment, risk characterization, and risk management encompassing control options and nonrisk analysis are combined to derive the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL, enforceable standard). Furthermore, this paper discusses the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's efforts in exploring new and improved noncancer risk assessment approaches providing the basis for MCLGs for the protection of human health.     

An assessment of the presence and health risks of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the drinking water treatment plant of Wu Chang,China

An assessment of the presence and health risks of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) of Wu Chang was performed. A recombinant yeast assay was used to assess the endocrine disrupting activity of the effluents of the DWTP. Agonistic activities of the estrogen receptor and androgen receptor were not detected in any of the effluent samples. However, anti-estrogenic and anti-androgenic activities were observed. In addition, the removal rates of the DWTP for the anti-androgenic activities were limited. A health risk assessment was performed on the basis of the results of the recombinant yeast assay, and the total daily production of hormones was used to evaluate the health risks of these types of endocrine-disrupting chemicals. The predicted effects of the anti-estrogenic and anti-androgenic disrupting activities were below 1.5%. This study suggested that the combined toxicity bioassays with health risk assessment could provide an available method to assess endocrine-disrupting chemicals and to evaluate the potential adverse effects on human health for aquatic environmental samples.     

Organochlorine contaminants in freshwater mussels; occurrence,bioaccumulation pattern,spatio-temporal distribution and human health risk assessment from the tributaries of River Ravi,Pakistan

The present study was conducted to investigate the bioavailable levels and human health risk of organochlorine contaminants (OCs), particularly organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in freshwater mussels from northern three tributaries of River Ravi, Pakistan that provides the pioneer data for the occurrence of POPs in the freshwater mussels from Pakistan. The Σ₂₃OCPs and Σ₃₅PCBs concentrations in mussels were ranged from 189.66–2049.40 ng/g and 25.81 to 135.38 ng/g, respectively. The comparison of current bioavailable levels of OCs with maximum residual limits (MRLs) established by Food and Agricultural Organization and European Union revealed that Σendosulfan (100%), ΣDDTs (93%), HCB (87%), β-HCH (77%), endrin (77%), γ-HCH (70%), heptachlor (67%), aldrin (67%), dielrin (67%), Chlordane (70%), α-HCH (40%), and WHO-TEQ (2005) values for PCB-126, PCB-169 and Σ₈DL-PCBs were exceeding the permissible limits. The human health risk assessment revealed the occurrence of substantial lifetime carcinogenic risk for OCPs and PCBs at both 50th and 95th percentile concentrations in freshwater mussels from the tributaries of River Ravi. Therefore, the freshwater mussels are recommended to be used in environmental toxicological studies to assess the bioavailable levels of pollution in hostile environment.     

Distribution of heavy metals in the water,sediments, and fishes from Damodar river basin at steel city,India: a probabilistic risk assessment

Abstract

The present study, deals with the estimation of degrees of contamination, ecological and human health risk of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in sediments, surface water and fishes, which were collected from middle stretch of Damodar river and ponds at Asansol, which receives outfall of various coal-based industries. Metal content in the premonsoon season was higher than the postmonsoon, due to influx of rainwater. The heavy metal pollution indices (HPI) at some locations was observed up to 1.45 times than recommended value and the cadmium (Cd) was found dominating metal for high HPI value. The Cd concentration in surface water and pore water varied from 2.8 to 14.9?µg/L and 15.3–57.0?µg/L, respectively, which was up to 6 times higher than the permissible limit. Ecological risk assessment for sediments illustrates ‘moderate to considerable ecological risk’, especially because of Cd. Hazard index (HI) calculated to identify potential human health risk by dermal exposure of surface water was <0.1, indicating ‘negligible non-cancer risk’ for all age group of people. However, HI varied from 0.73 to 1.49 for adult and 1.37–2.78 by consumption of fishes indicates children have higher ‘non-cancer risk’ than adult.     

Concentrations of heavy metals in vegetables between 2004 and 2018, and its impacts on human health in China

Abstract

Heavy metals in vegetables are of great concern worldwide due to their potential bioaccumulation in human. This review-based study researched the concentrations of heavy metals in vegetables from all provinces of China between 2004 and 2018, and assessed the health risk for the residents. The results displayed the highest Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn concentrations in vegetables were 0.192?mg/kg (west area), 0.071?mg/kg (central area), 3.961?mg/kg (central area), and 10.545?mg/kg (central area), which were lower than the maximum allowable concentration. In the national scale, the weighted average level of heavy metals in vegetables was found to be in the order of Zn?>?Cu?>?Pb?>?Cd. The hazard index (HI) of each province showed that beside Anhui and Hunan province, residents in other provinces of China faced a low high risk of Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn. However, people consuming vegetables faced a high risk of Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn in Anhui and Hunan provinces. This research may provide insight into heavy metal accumulation in vegetables and forecast to residents to cope with these problems for improved human health.