Lack of trade-offs between the male and female sexual functions in the gynodioecious herb <Emphasis Type="Italic">Geranium sylvaticum</Emphasis>

Resource allocation trade-offs between sexual functions are predicted, but these are usually measured only at the whole plant level. In some gynodioecious species, individuals with partially restored male fertility exist providing an opportunity to investigate whether the costs associated with male fertility restoration are linked to seed production. In this study, we examined whether there is a relationship between the numbers of stamens and seeds produced both at the flower level and at the plant level in the gynodioecious herb Geranium sylvaticum. We individually marked flowers in plants varying in the degree of male sterility in the field and counted the number of seeds produced. There was no significant correlation between the numbers of stamens and seeds produced at the flower level suggesting an absence of resource trade-off between female and male functions. Furthermore, the numbers of stamens and seeds were positively correlated at the plant level. The lack of trade-offs between the two sexual functions in this species indicates that relative sex allocation was not affected by resources within a single season and/or that the male costs were relatively small.     

Differences in response to simulated herbivory between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus crispula</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus dentata</Emphasis>

To evaluate the responses of Quercus crispula and Quercus dentata to herbivory, their leaves were subjected to simulated herbivory in early spring and examined for the subsequent changes in leaf traits and attacks by chewing herbivores in mid summer. In Quercus crispula, nitrogen content per area was higher in artificially damaged leaves than in control leaves. This species is assumed to increase the photosynthetic rate per area by increasing nitrogen content per area to compensate leaf area loss. In Quercus dentata, nitrogen content per area did not differ between artificially damaged and control leaves, while nitrogen content per mass was slightly lower in artificially damaged leaves. The difference in their responses can be attributable to the difference in the architecture of their leaves and/or the severeness of herbivory. The development of leaf area from early spring to mid summer was larger in artificially damaged leaves than in control leaves in both species, suggesting the compensatory response to leaf area loss. Leaf dry mass per unit area was also larger in artificially damaged leaves in both species, but the adaptive significance of this change is not clear. In spite of such changes in leaf traits, no difference was detected in the degree of damage by chewing herbivores between artificially damaged and controlled leaves in both species.     

Injured and uninjured leaf photosynthetic responses after mechanical injury on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nerium oleander</Emphasis> leaves,and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Danaus plexippus</Emphasis> herbivory on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Asclepias curassavica</Emphasis> leaves

Insect herbivory has variable effects on plant physiology; so greater understanding is needed about how injury alters photosynthesis on individual injured and uninjured leaves. Gas exchange and light-adapted leaf chlorophyll fluorescence measurements were collected from uninjured and mechanical partial leaf defoliation in two experiments with Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae) leaves, and one experiment with Danaus plexippus herbivory on Asclepias curassavica (Asclepiadaceae) leaves. Gas exchange impairment (lower photosynthetic rate (P _n ), stomatal conductance (g _s)) indicates water stress in a leaf, suggests stomatal limitations causing injury P _n impairment. The same pattern of gas exchange impairment also occurred on uninjured leaves opposite from injured leaves in both N. oleander experiments. This is an interesting result because photosynthetic impairment is rarely reported on injured leaves near injured leaves. No photosynthetic changes occurred in uninjured A. curassavica leaves opposite from D. plexippus-fed leaves. Partially defoliated leaves that had P _n and g _s reductions lacked any significant changes in intercellular leaf [CO₂], C _i. These results neither support, nor are sufficient to reject, stomatal limitations to photosynthesis. Manually imposed midrib vein severance in N. oleander experiment #1 significantly increased leaf C _i, indicating mesophyll limitations to photosynthesis. Maximal light-adapted leaf photochemical efficiency () and also non-photochemical quenching (q _N) were reduced by mechanical or insect herbivory to both study species, suggesting leaf trouble handling excess light energy not used for photochemistry. Midrib injury on N. oleander leaves and D. plexippus herbivory on A. curassavica leaves also reduced effective quantum yield (ΦPSII) and photochemical quenching (q _P); so reduced plastoquinone pools could lead to additional PSII reaction center closure.     

Sexual dimorphism in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sebastes owstoni</Emphasis> (Scorpaenidae) from the Sea of Japan

Morphological and genetic differences between red and yellow morphotypes of Sebastes owstoni were investigated, utilizing 277 males [84.0–194.3 mm in standard length (SL)] and 542 females (92.3–251.5 mm SL) from the Sea of Japan. All males smaller than 120 mm SL were characterized by red body color. The frequency of specimens with yellow body color thereafter increased gradually with SL, all specimens larger than 170 mm SL being yellow. The specimens with yellow body color were observed throughout the year. All females smaller than 170 mm SL were characterized by red body color, the frequency of specimens with yellow body color tending to slightly increase with SL. However, most females had red body color, except for 16 specimens (177.7–241.5 mm SL) that were yellow, growth-related color change from red to yellow being uncommon. Morphological analysis of 49 males (107.6–193.3 mm SL) and 68 females (108.7–241.5 mm SL) showed the head length, orbit diameter, lower jaw length, and predorsal length to be relatively greater, but the distance between the pelvic and anal fins less, in males. A discriminant analysis using Mahalanobis distances resulted in 100% correct assignment of specimens to sex, regardless of SL and body color. In addition, no genetic differences were apparent between red and yellow individuals in mitochondrial DNA sequence analyses from the threonine tRNA to the first half of the control region (498 bp). Accordingly, the differences in body color, maximum size, and the five morphometric characters listed above were considered to represent sexual dimorphism. That evidenced by body color was considered to appear after that shown by morphometric characters, some exceptions in the former occurring in females. This is the first report of permanent sexual dimorphism in body color in Sebastes.     

Duplication of <Emphasis Type="Italic">AP1</Emphasis> within the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spinacia oleracea</Emphasis> L. <Emphasis Type="Italic">AP1/FUL</Emphasis> clade is followed by rapid amino acid and regulatory evolution

The AP1/FUL clade of MADS box genes have undergone multiple duplication events among angiosperm species. While initially identified as having floral meristem identity and floral organ identity function in Arabidopsis, the role of AP1 homologs does not appear to be universally conserved even among eudicots. In comparison, the role of FRUITFULL has not been extensively explored in non-model species. We report on the isolation of three AP1/FUL genes from cultivated spinach, Spinacia oleracea L. Two genes, designated SpAPETALA1-1 (SpAP1-1) and SpAPETALA1-2 (SpAP1-2), cluster as paralogous genes within the Caryophyllales AP1 clade. They are highly differentiated in the 3′, carboxyl-end encoding region of the gene following the third amphipathic alpha-helix region, while still retaining some elements of a signature AP1 carboxyl motifs. In situ hybridization studies also demonstrate that the two paralogs have evolved different temporal and spatial expression patterns, and that neither gene is expressed in the developing sepal whorl, suggesting that the AP1 floral organ identity function is not conserved in spinach. The spinach FRUITFULL homolog, SpFRUITFULL (SpFUL), has retained the conserved motif and groups with Caryophyllales FRUITFULL homologs. SpFUL is expressed in leaf as well as in floral tissue, and shows strong expression late in flower development, particularly in the tapetal layer in males, and in the endothecium layer and stigma, in the females. The combined evidence of high rates of non-synonymous substitutions and differential expression patterns supports a scenario in which the AP1 homologs in the spinach AP1/FUL gene family have experienced rapid evolution following duplication. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>1<Emphasis Type="Italic">/copia</Emphasis>- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>3<Emphasis Type="Italic">/gypsy</Emphasis>-like DNA sequences in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthus </Emphasis>species

Two repeated DNA sequences isolated from a partial genomic DNA library of Helianthus annuus, p HaS13 and p HaS211, were shown to represent portions of the int gene of a Ty3 /gypsy retroelement and of the RNase-Hgene of a Ty1 /copia retroelement, respectively. Southern blotting patterns obtained by hybridizing the two probes to BglII- or DraI-digested genomic DNA from different Helianthus species showed p HaS13 and p HaS211 were parts of dispersed repeats at least 8 and 7 kb in length, respectively, that were conserved in all species studied. Comparable hybridization patterns were obtained in all species with p HaS13. By contrast, the patterns obtained by hybridizing p HaS211 clearly differentiated annual species from perennials. The frequencies of p HaS13- and p HaS211-related sequences in different species were 4.3x10(4)-1.3x10(5) copies and 9.9x10(2)-8.1x10(3) copies per picogram of DNA, respectively. The frequency of p HaS13-related sequences varied widely within annual species, while no significant difference was observed among perennial species. Conversely, the frequency variation of p HaS211-related sequences was as large within annual species as within perennials. Sequences of both families were found to be dispersed along the length of all chromosomes in all species studied. However, Ty3 /gypsy-like sequences were localized preferentially at the centromeric regions, whereas Ty1/ copia-like sequences were less represented or absent around the centromeres and plentiful at the chromosome ends. These findings suggest that the two sequence families played a role in Helianthusgenome evolution and species divergence, evolved independently in the same genomic backgrounds and in annual or perennial species, and acquired different possible functions in the host genomes.     

Histological examinations of facial glands in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccopteryx</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">bilineata</Emphasis> (Chiroptera,Emballonuridae), and their potential use in territorial marking

Scent marking is widespread among individuals of Mammalia species, especially in resource defence social systems. Apart from urine and faeces that are used for claiming resource ownership, specialised scent glands are the main source of secretions in scent marking individuals. Most previous studies have described secretory epithelia macroscopically, since many glands are conspicuous. But macroscopically inconspicuous scent glands or morphological structures might then be overlooked. In Saccopteryx bilineata (greater sac-winged bat), behavioural observations suggest that both sexes have, apart from the conspicuous gular glands of males, specialised facial glands to display territorial marking. We investigated the facial glands of two males and one female S. bilineata histologically and found, first, that both sexes possess a bilateral symmetrically intermandibular gland, which is composed of a bed of modified apocrine sudoriferous cells. Second, we found lip glands consisting of modified apocrine sudoriferous cell units with pigmented ducts around the upper and the lower lip. Both gland types are probably involved during territorial marking.     

Take-off performance under optimal and suboptimal thermal conditions in the butterfly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pararge aegeria</Emphasis>

Realized fitness in a fluctuating environment depends on the capacity of an ectothermic organism to function at different temperatures. Flying heliotherms like butterflies use flight for almost all activities like mate location, foraging and host plant searching and oviposition. Several studies tested the importance of ambient temperature, thermoregulation and butterfly activity. Here, we test the influence of variation in flight morphology in interaction with differences in body temperature on locomotor performance, which has not been thoroughly examined so far. Take-off free flight performance was tested at two different body temperatures in males and females of the speckled wood butterfly Pararge aegeria. We found that both males and females accelerated faster at the optimal body temperature compared to the suboptimal one. The multivariate analyses showed significant sex-specific contributions of flight morphology, body temperature treatment and feeding load to explain variation in acceleration performance. Female and male butterflies with a large relative thorax (i.e. flight muscle investment) mass and large, slender wings (i.e. aspect ratio) accelerated fast at optimal temperature. However, high aspect ratio individuals accelerated slowly at suboptimal temperature. Females of low body mass accelerated fast at optimal, but slowly at suboptimal body temperature. In males, there was an interaction effect between body and relative thorax mass: light males with high relative thorax mass had higher performance than males with a low relative thorax mass. In addition, relative distance to the centre of forewing area was positively related to acceleration at both temperatures in males. Males and females with higher feeding loads had lower levels of acceleration. Finally, males that were able to accelerate fast under both temperatures, had a highly significantly heavier relative thorax, lower body and abdomen mass. More generally, this study shows that the significance of butterfly flight morphology in terms of flight performance is at least partially dependent on body temperature.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Galleria</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mellonella</Emphasis> are Resistant to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pneumocystis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">murina</Emphasis> Infection

Studying Pneumocystis has proven to be a challenge from the perspective of propagating a significant amount of the pathogen in a facile manner. The study of several fungal pathogens has been aided by the use of invertebrate model hosts. Our efforts to infect the invertebrate larvae Galleria mellonella with Pneumocystis proved futile since P. murina neither caused disease nor was able to proliferate within G. mellonella. It did, however, show that the pathogen could be rapidly cleared from the host.     

Morphology and colonization preference of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Clethra barbinervis</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cucumis sativus</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lycopersicon esculentum</Emphasis>

Clethra barbinervis (Ericales), Cucumis sativus, and Lycopersicon esculentum were grown in soils collected from six different vegetation sites (cedar, cypress, larch, red pine, bamboo grass, and Italian ryegrass), and morphology and colonization preference of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi were investigated by microscopic observation and PCR detection. C. barbinervis consistently formed Paris-type AM throughout the sites. C. sativus formed both Arum- and Paris-type AM with high occurrence of Arum-type AM. L. esculentum also formed both Arum- and Paris-type AM but with high occurrence of Paris-type AM. AM diversity within the same plant species was different among the sites. Detected AM diversity from AM spores in different site soils did not consistently reflect AM fungal diversity seen in test plants. Detected families were different, depending on test plants grown even in the same soil. AM fungi belonging to Glomaceae were consistently detected from roots of all test plants throughout the sites. Almost all the families were detected from roots of C. barbinervis and L. esculentum. On the other hand, only two or three families of AM fungi (Archaeosporaceae and/or Paraglomaceae and Glomaceae) but not two other families (Acaulosporaceae and Gigasporaceae) were detected from roots of C. sativus, indicating strong colonization preference of AM fungi to C. sativus among test plants. This study demonstrated that host plant species strongly influenced the colonization preference of AM fungi in the roots.     

Revision of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis> species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penstemon</Emphasis> section <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccanthera</Emphasis> subsection <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis>

A revision of Penstemon sect. Saccanthera subsect. Serrulati includes a new species (P. salmonensis), a new variety (P. triphyllus var. infernalis), and the elevation of a subspecies to species (P. curtiflorus), bringing the total number of species to eight, which are keyed and described, complete with nomenclature and type citations.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonize decomposing leaves of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Myrica parvifolia</Emphasis>,<Emphasis Type="Italic"> M. pubescens</Emphasis> and<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Paepalanthus</Emphasis> sp.

Hyphae and vesicles of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) were found within the decomposing leaves of Myrica parvifolia, M. pubescens and Paepalanthus sp. at three montane sites in Colombia. Hyphae, vesicles, and arbuscule-like structures were also found within scale-like leaves of the rhizomes of Paepalanthus sp. The litter found in the vicinity of the roots was divided into three decomposition layers. The highest AMF colonization occurred in the most decomposed leaves, which were in close association with roots. In contrast, there were no differences in AMF colonization of roots present in the different decomposition layers. Colonization of decomposing leaves by AMF did not differ between the two closely related species M. parvifolia and M. pubescens, nor between two sites (Guatavita and Zipacón, Colombia) differing in soil fertility. Occurrence of vesicles in decomposing leaves was correlated with abundant AMF extraradical hyphae among the leaves. We propose that AMF enter decomposing leaves mechanically through vascular tissue. As a consequence, AMF are well positioned to obtain and efficiently recycle mineral nutrients released by decomposer microorganisms before their loss by leaching or immobilization in soil.     

The genetics of sex determination in stinging nettle (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Urtica dioica</Emphasis>)

Urtica dioica (“stinging nettle”) includes both dioecious and monoecious forms. In most sexually dimorphic angiosperm species, the genetic mechanisms of sex determination are completely unknown. The few species that include both monoecious and dioecious forms provide an unusual opportunity to examine the genetic mechanisms that underlie the separation of sexual functions, through crossing experiments and analysis of progeny segregation. Our focus is on the genetic mechanisms distinguishing monoecious and dioecious forms of U. dioica. A complicated picture of sex determination in this species has resulted from crosses between dioecious and monoecious subspecies, as well as between dioecious and monoecious forms of the same subspecies. Most significant is evidence for a maternal influence on sex determination and for the possibility of gynodioecy as an intermediate stage in the evolutionary pathway to dioecy. Electronic supplementary material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

Sexual coercion does not exclude luring behavior in the climbing camel-spider <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oltacola chacoensis</Emphasis> (Arachnida,Solifugae, Ammotrechidae)

Sexual coercion in the form of forced copulation has been used as a typical example to illustrate the conflict of interests between females and males. Among arthropods, forced copulation has been reported for some groups of insects and crustaceans, but not for arachnids. In the present work, we analyse and describe the behavioral patterns of mating behavior of the climbing camel-spider, Oltacola chacoensis, relating it to relevant morphological features, In this species, the male forcefully clasps the female’s genital region with his chelicerae and locks her fourth pair of legs with his pedipalps. In some cases, the cuticle of the female’s abdomen was damaged by this cheliceral clasping. In contrast to other camel-spiders, the female O. chacoensis never remained motionless during mating, but continuously shook her body, opening her chelicerae notably towards the male. Despite this coercive context, males performed copulatory courtship (tapping with pedipalps) and females showed an apparent cooperative behavior (they remained still during a short period of the sperm transfer phase). These results strengthen the idea that sexual coercion (in the form of forced copulation) and luring behavior (in the form of copulatory courtship) are not two mutually-exclusive male’s strategies during a single copulation.     

Breeding system of the annual Cruciferae, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis kamchatica</Emphasis> subsp. <Emphasis Type="Italic">kawasakiana</Emphasis>

The breeding system of an annual Cruciferae, Arabidopsis kamchatica subsp. kawasakiana, was studied in three natural populations. We applied four experimental treatments, open pollination, bagging, emasculation + bagging, and emasculation + hand-pollination + bagging. None of the emasculated flowers with bags produced fruits but we observed high fruit sets in the other three treatments. The results confirmed that A. kamchatica subsp. kawasakiana is a self-compatible, non-apomictic species that can produce seeds through auto-pollination. Considering the life cycle as an annual, increased reproductive assurance through auto-pollination should be critical for the maintenance of populations of A. kamchatica subsp. kawasakiana.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">tumefaciens</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of callus cells of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crataegus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">aronia</Emphasis>

A genetic transformation system has been developed for callus cells of Crataegus aronia using Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Callus culture was established from internodal stem segments incubated on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 5 mg l⁻¹ Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and 0.5 mg l⁻¹ 6-benzyladenine (BA). In order to optimize the callus culture system with respect to callus growth and coloration, different types and concentrations of plant growth regulators were tested. Results indicated that the best average fresh weight of red colored callus was obtained on MS medium supplemented with 2 mg l⁻¹ 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 1.5 mg l⁻¹ kinetin (Kin) (callus maintenance medium). Callus cells were co-cultivated with Agrobacterium harboring the binary plasmid pCAMBIA1302 carrying the mgfp5 and hygromycin phosphotransferase (hptII) genes conferring green fluorescent protein (GFP) activity and hygromycin resistance, respectively. Putative transgenic calli were obtained 4 weeks after incubation of the co-cultivated explants onto maintenance medium supplemented with 50 mg l⁻¹ hygromycin. Molecular analysis confirmed the integration of the transgenes in transformed callus. To our knowledge, this is the first time to report an Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system in Crataegus aronia.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">Caenorhabditis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">briggsae</Emphasis> genome contains active <Emphasis Type="Italic">CbmaT1</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tcb1</Emphasis> transposons

The maT clade of transposons is a group of transposable elements intermediate in sequence and predicted protein structure to mariner and Tc transposons, with a distribution thus far limited to a few invertebrate species. We present evidence, based on searches of publicly available databases, that the nematode Caenorhabditis briggsae has several maT-like transposons, which we have designated as CbmaT elements, dispersed throughout its genome. We also describe two additional transposon sequences that probably share their evolutionary history with the CbmaT transposons. One resembles a fold back variant of a CbmaT element, with long (380-bp) inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) that show a high degree (71%) of identity to CbmaT1. The other, which shares only the 26-bp ITR sequences with one of the CbmaT variants, is present in eight nearly identical copies, but does not have a transposase gene and may therefore be cross mobilised by a CbmaT transposase. Using PCR-based mobility assays, we show that CbmaT1 transposons are capable of excising from the C. briggsae genome. CbmaT1 excised approximately 500 times less frequently than Tcb1 in the reference strain AF16, but both CbmaT1 and Tcb1 excised at extremely high frequencies in the HK105 strain. The HK105 strain also exhibited a high frequency of spontaneous induction of unc-22 mutants, suggesting that it may be a mutator strain of C. briggsae.     

Effects of simulated herbivory on photosynthesis and N resorption efficiency in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">pyrenaica</Emphasis> Willd. saplings

We examined the effects of simulated folivory by caterpillars on photosynthetic parameters and nitrogen (N) resorption efficiency in Quercus pyrenaica saplings. We analyzed the differences between intact leaves in control plants, punched leaves in damaged plants, and intact leaves in damaged plants. We then established two levels of simulated folivory: low (≈13% of the leaf area of one main branch removed per plant) and high (≈26% of the leaf area of one main branch removed per plant) treatments. No differences were found in net assimilation rate and conductance between either leaf type or treatment during the most favourable period for photosynthesis. However, the N content was lower in punched than in intact leaves, and as a result PNUE was higher in damaged leaves from treated trees. In leaf-litter samples, N mass was significantly higher in punched than in intact leaves in treated plants, and LMA was significantly higher in damaged than in intact leaves of both the treated and control plants. Consequently, N resorption efficiency was around 15% lower in damaged leaves as compared with intact leaves from treated and control plants. Mechanical injury to leaves not only triggered no compensatory photosynthetic response to compensate a lower carbon uptake due to leaf area loss, but also affected the resorption process that characterizes leaf senescence.