海洋来源硫酸软骨素降解酶的研究进展

硫酸软骨素作为糖胺聚糖的一类,广泛分布于细胞膜表面及细胞基质中,参与了一系列生理和病理过程。硫酸软骨素的功能多样性与其结构多样性密切相关,而硫酸软骨素降解酶在硫酸软骨素/硫酸皮肤素构效关系研究中发挥了重要作用。该文结合笔者工作,全面阐述了目前商品化硫酸软骨素降解酶的种类、作用机制,以及近期在海洋细菌中发现和鉴定的硫酸软骨素降解酶。最后,对海洋来源硫酸软骨素降解酶进行了展望。     

鹿茸硫酸软骨素蛋白聚糖的分离纯化研究

报道了用DEAE-纤维素(DE-23)离子交换柱层析从鹿茸二杠中分离、纯化及鉴定硫酸软骨素的方法.首先用适量蒸馏水浸泡鹿茸二杠并将其捣碎,离心取沉淀用盐酸胍浸提,浸提液对尿素液透析后经DEAE-纤维素(DE-23)离子交换柱层析,吸附大量的硫酸软骨素;再用含盐尿素溶液梯度洗脱、分离后,经软骨素酶消化及琼脂糖凝胶电泳, 与硫酸软骨素标准品比较,证实得到的物质为纯的硫酸软骨素蛋白聚糖,其得率约为48.77%.该方法使硫酸软骨素分离纯化一步完成,大大简化了纯化步骤.     

硫酸软骨素研究现状

硫酸软骨素是从动物软骨中提取的黏性多糖,在医药、化妆品和食品工业上有广泛的用途,市场前景广阔。本对硫酸软骨素的性质和用途做了简要的介绍,并阐述了近几年硫酸软骨素生产工艺的发展状况。     

基于工程化毕赤酵母一锅法合成硫酸软骨素A北大核心CSCD

硫酸软骨素(chondroitin sulfate,CS)是一种线性多糖,广泛应用于医疗和保健等领域。相比于传统动物组织提取法,微生物合成硫酸软骨素具有可控、易规模化放大等优势。为实现硫酸软骨素A(CSA)的高效合成,本研究首先通过整合软骨素合酶编码基因kfoC、kfoA以及UDP-葡萄糖脱氢酶编码基因tuaD至毕赤酵母GS115基因组中,构建了以甘油为唯一碳源发酵生产软骨素的毕赤酵母工程菌株。通过进一步优化软骨素合成途径,软骨素分批补料发酵水平达到2.6 g/L。在进一步整合表达软骨素-4-O-磺基转移酶的基础上,本研究通过向生产软骨素毕赤酵母工程菌株破碎液中添加3′-磷酸腺苷-5′-磷酰硫酸和软骨素-4-O-磺基转移酶,成功建立了CSA的一锅法生物合成体系。通过优化,最终实现0-40%不同磺酸化水平CSA的可控合成。本研究中CSA的一锅法生物合成体系操作简便、易放大,更适用于工业化大规模生产。本研究结果也为肝素等其他糖胺聚糖的合成提供了思路。     

硫酸软骨素的提取和纯化分离技术

介绍了硫酸软骨素的来源、结构、性质及其生理功能,对硫酸软骨素的提取、纯化及分离技术进行了综述。     

发酵法生产硫酸软骨素的研究进展

硫酸软骨素是一种典型的硫酸化糖胺聚糖,具有多种药物活性,广泛应用于药品、保健品及化妆品行业。硫酸软骨素是动物软骨中蛋白聚糖的主要成分和少数几种细菌的荚膜多糖,因此可利用动物提取法和发酵法进行生产。以下综述了硫酸软骨素的发酵生产及其合成机制的研究进展,并对其发展趋势进行了展望。     

三种方法测定鲨鱼硫酸软骨素钠含量的比较

利用酶解高效液相色谱法、高效液相色谱法及氯化十六烷基吡啶电位滴定法对鲨鱼硫酸软骨素钠含量进行检测,并对检测结果进行对比分析,结果显示,酶解高效液相色谱法不适用于鲨鱼硫酸软骨素钠含量的测定;而氯化十六烷基吡啶电位滴定法检测鲨鱼硫酸软骨素钠含量稍高于高效液相色谱法;相比之下,高效液相色谱法较适用于检测鲨鱼硫酸软骨素钠含量。     

硫酸软骨素在癌症治疗领域的研究进展

硫酸软骨素是一种硫酸化的糖胺聚糖,其在恶性肿瘤组织中的含量、结构、硫酸化位点等与正常组织存在显著差异,在癌症的迁移,侵袭,血管生成过程中发挥重要调控作用,在癌症的临床研究中具有很大潜力。该文对硫酸软骨素的生物合成进行归类分析,对近几年硫酸软骨素与肿瘤入侵和转移的相关临床研究以及分子机制研究做出综述,以期为开发硫酸软骨素潜在的临床价值和肿瘤治疗靶点研究提供理论依据,为恶性肿瘤的早期诊断和预后评估提供思路。     

猪喉软骨营养保健成分及清除自由基功能分析

详细分析了猪喉软骨氨基酸和矿物元素组分及含量,并用木瓜蛋白酶水解软骨,732阳离子树脂纯化粗多糖,首次分别探讨水解物肽和硫酸软骨素的体外自由基清除活性。结果发现软骨呈味氨基酸、钙、镁和铁元素丰富,水解物肽和硫酸软骨素多糖的自由基清除机理不同,水解物肽的羟基自由基和超氧自由基清除活性强于硫酸软骨素,DPPH自由基清除活性相反。     

硫酸软骨素对慢性酒精中毒大鼠脑损伤的保护作用

目的:探讨硫酸软骨素对慢性酒精中毒脑损伤的作用及可能机制.方法:雄性 Wistar 大鼠60只随机分为6组,酒精模型组以剂量为8ml·kg-1·d-150%的酒精每天灌胃一次,纳洛酮药物组给予乙醇半小时后腹腔注射纳洛酮0.08mg·k-1·d-1,硫酸软骨素低、中、高剂量干预组在酒精模型组的基础上分别给予硫酸软骨素50、100、150mg·kg-1·d-1,空白对照组给予等体积的蒸馏水,持续2周;第三周把50%的酒精的剂量递增为12mg·kg-1·d-1,持续灌胃6周.在第八周末实验结束后取血,分离血清,留取脑组织.HE染色观察各组大鼠神经细胞的变化.生化测定各组大鼠血清及脑组织匀浆中谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-PX)和超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)的活性以及脂质过氧物终未产物丙二醛(MDA);并测定脑皮质中β-内啡肽含量(β-EP).结果:模型组大鼠大脑皮质和海马区神经元数量明显减少,神经细胞排列紊乱.硫酸软骨素中剂量组大鼠大脑皮质和海马区神经细胞排列层次较清晰.与酒精组相比较,硫酸软骨素中剂量组大鼠血清和脑组织匀浆中MDA含量明显降低(P<0.01),脑皮质中β-内啡肽含量明显降低(P<0.01);GSH-PX含量及SOD活性显著升高(P<0.01).结论:硫酸软骨素对大鼠慢性酒精中毒脑损伤具有保护作用.     

Role of caveolae in the pathogenesis of cholesterol-induced gallbladder muscle hypomotility

Muscle cells from human gallbladders (GB) with cholesterol stones (ChS) exhibit a defective contraction, excess cholesterol (Ch) in the plasma membrane, and lower binding of CCK-1 receptors. These abnormalities improved after muscle cells were incubated with Ch-free liposomes that remove the excess Ch from the plasma membrane. The present studies were designed to investigate the role of caveolin-3 proteins (Cav-3) in the pathogenesis of these abnormalities. Muscle cells from GB with ChS exhibit higher Ch levels in the plasma membrane that were mostly localized in caveolae and associated with parallel increases in the expression of Cav-3 in the caveolae compared with that in GB with pigment stones (PS). The overall number of CCK-1 receptors in the plasma membrane was not different between muscle cells from GB with ChS and PS, but they were increased in the caveolae in muscle cells from GB with ChS. Treatment of muscle cells from GB with ChS with a Galpha(i3) protein fragment increased the total binding of CCK-1 receptors (from 8.3 to 11.2%) and muscle contraction induced by CCK-8 (from 11.2 to 17.3% shortening). However, Galpha(q/11) protein fragment had no such effect. Moreover, neither fragment had any effect on muscle cells from GB with PS. We conclude that the defective contraction of muscle cells with excessive Ch levels in the plasma membrane is due to an increased expression of Cav-3 that results in the sequestration of CCK-1 receptors in the caveolae, probably by inhibiting the functions of Galpha(i3) proteins.     

Effects of 2-hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin and cholesterol on porcine sperm viability and capacitation status following cold shock or incubation

Porcine sperm are extremely sensitive to the damaging effects of cold shock. It has been shown that cholesterol-binding molecules, such as 2-hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HBCD), improve post-cooling porcine sperm viability when added to an egg yolk-based extender, but also enhance sperm capacitation in other species. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of HBCD and cholesterol 3-sulfate (ChS) on porcine sperm viability and capacitation following cold shock or incubation under conditions that support capacitation using a defined medium. We report here that porcine sperm incubated in medium containing both HBCD and ChS have significantly improved viability following cold shock (10 min at 10 degrees C) when compared to sperm incubated without HBCD or ChS, or with either component alone. Treatment with HBCD plus ChS also completely inhibited the increase in protein tyrosine phosphorylation induced by the cold shock treatment or by incubation for 3 hr under conditions that support capacitation. Two assays of sperm capacitation, the rate of calcium ionophore-induced acrosome reactions and chlortetracycline (CTC) staining, were not significantly altered by HBCD and ChS following cold shock. However, 3-hr incubation with HBCD plus ChS or with 1 mM ChS alone decreased the percentage of sperm undergoing the induced acrosome reaction without significantly affecting viability when compared to the control. These results indicate that the manipulation of sperm plasma membrane cholesterol content affects porcine sperm viability and capacitation status and could therefore be useful to protect sperm from cold shock during cryopreservation by improving viability without promoting premature capacitation.     

Defect of receptor-G protein coupling in human gallbladder with cholesterol stones

Human gallbladders with cholesterol stones (ChS) exhibit an impaired muscle contraction and relaxation and a lower CCK receptor-binding capacity compared with those with pigment stones (PS). This study was designed to determine whether there is an abnormal receptor-G protein coupling in human gallbladders with ChS using (35)S-labeled guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) ([(35)S]GTPgammaS) binding, (125)I-labeled CCK-8 autoradiography, immunoblotting, and G protein quantitation. CCK and vasoactive intestinal peptide caused significant increases in [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding to Galpha(i-3) and G(s)alpha, respectively. The binding was lower in ChS than in PS (P < 0.01). The reduced [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding in ChS was normalized after the muscles were treated with cholesterol-free liposomes (P < 0.01). Autoradiography and immunoblots showed a decreased optical density (OD) for CCK receptors, an even lower OD value for receptor-G protein coupling, and a higher OD for uncoupled receptors or Galpha(i-3) protein in ChS compared with PS (P < 0.001). G protein quantitation also showed that there were no significant differences in the Galpha(i-3) and G(s)alpha content in ChS and PS. We conclude that, in addition to an impaired CCK receptor-binding capacity, there is a defect in receptor-G protein coupling in muscle cells from gallbladder with ChS. These changes may be normalized after removal of excess cholesterol from the plasma membrane.     

Impaired cytoprotective function of muscle in human gallbladders with cholesterol stones

Acute cholecystitis develops in gallbladders (GB) with excessive bile cholesterol (Ch). Increased membrane Ch content affects membrane function and may affect PGE(2) receptors involved in the cytoprotection against acute inflammation. This study was aimed at determining whether the cytoprotective response to PGE(2) is affected by lithogenic bile with Ch. Muscle cells from human GB with cholesterol stones (ChS) or pigment stones (PS) were obtained by enzymatic digestion. PGE(2) levels were measured by radioimmunoassay, and activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase were assayed by spectrophotometry. The contraction in response to H(2)O(2) in muscle cells from PS was 14 +/- 0.3%, not different from normal controls, and decreased after the cells were incubated with Ch-rich liposomes (P < 0.05), which increase the Ch content in the plasma membranes. In muscle cells from GB with ChS, H(2)O(2)-induced contraction was only 9.2 +/- 1.3% and increased to 14 +/- 0.2% after Ch-free liposome treatment to remove Ch from the plasma membranes (P < 0.01). H(2)O(2) caused a similar increase in the levels of lipid peroxidation and PGE(2) content in muscle cells from GBs with ChS and PS. However, the activities of SOD and catalase were significantly lower in muscle cells from GBs with ChS compared with those with PS. The binding capacity of PGE(2) receptors was also significantly lower in muscle cells from GBs with ChS compared with those with PS. In conclusion, the cytoprotective response to reactive oxygen species is reduced in muscle cells from GBs with ChS despite a normal increase in the cellular levels of PGE(2). This impaired cytoprotective response may be due to a dysfunction of PGE(2) receptors with decreased binding capacity resulting from excessive Ch levels in the plasma membrane.     

Reversible inhibition of rabbit sperm-fertilizing ability by cholesterol sulfate

Experiments were carried out to examine the influences of lipid treatments on the fertilizing ability of rabbit spermatozoa. In vitro insemination of tubal oocytes with in vivo-capacitated sperm resulted in fertilization (IVF) of 81% of the oocytes (38/47) and in vitro development to the morula or blastocyst stage of 92% (35/38) of the embryos within 72 to 96 h. Treatment of capacitated sperm with cholesterol (Ch, up to 100 micrograms/ml) did not reduce the proportion of oocytes fertilized (fertilization rate, 100%, 8/8). Cholesterol-3-sulfate (Chs) at concentrations of 100 and 1,000 micrograms/ml significantly (p less than 0.001) decreased fertilization rates to 13.6% (8/59), and 3.5% (1/29), respectively. Hypercholesterolemic serum (HChS, 1295 mg cholesterol/dl vs. 45 +/- 18 mg/dl in normal serum), incubated for 2 h with in vivo-capacitated sperm, did not inhibit fertilization. However, a decreasing trend in fertilization was associated with increasing levels of HChS cholesterol. ChS effectively inhibited the fertilizing ability of capacitated sperm (p less than 0.05) compared to control, Ch, and HChS. In another experiment the use of ChS at 100 micrograms/ml significantly (p less than 0.05) reduced the fertilization rate from 56.6% (30/53) to 14.3% (7/49). When a phospholipid-enriched serum medium was added to sperm treated with 100 micrograms ChS/ml, the fertilization rate was 57.7% (23/40), which was not significantly (p less than 0.05) different from the fertilization rate of sperm not treated with ChS (56.6%, 30/53). These data suggest that rabbit sperm fertilizing ability can be reversibly inhibited by cholesterol sulfate.     

Dynamic loading stimulates chondrocyte biosynthesis when encapsulated in charged hydrogels prepared from poly(ethylene glycol) and chondroitin sulfate

This study aimed to elucidate the role of charge in mediating chondrocyte response to loading by employing synthetic 3D hydrogels. Specifically, neutral poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels were employed where negatively charged chondroitin sulfate (ChS), one of the main extracellular matrix components of cartilage, was systematically incorporated into the PEG network at 0%, 20% or 40% to control the fixed charge density. PEG hydrogels were employed as a control environment for extracellular events which occur as a result of loading, but which are not associated with a charged matrix (e.g., cell deformation and fluid flow). Freshly isolated bovine articular chondrocytes were embedded in the hydrogels and subject to dynamic mechanical stimulation (0.3 Hz, 15% amplitude strains, 6 h) and assayed for nitric oxide production, cell proliferation, proteoglycan synthesis, and collagen deposition. In the absence of loading, incorporation of charge inhibited cell proliferation by ~ 75%, proteoglycan synthesis by ~ 22–50% depending on ChS content, but had no affect on collagen deposition. Dynamic loading had no effect on cellular responses in PEG hydrogels. However, dynamically loading 20% ChS gels inhibited nitrite production by 50%, cell proliferation by 40%, but stimulated proteoglycan and collagen deposition by 162% and 565%, respectively. Dynamic loading of 40% ChS hydrogels stimulated nitrite production by 62% and proteoglycan synthesis by 123%, but inhibited cell proliferation by 54% and collagen deposition by 52%. Upon removing the load and culturing under free-swelling conditions for 36 h, the enhanced matrix synthesis observed in the 20% ChS gels was not maintained suggesting that loading is necessary to stimulate matrix production. In conclusion, extracellular events associated with a charged matrix have a dramatic affect on how chondrocytes respond to mechanical stimulation within these artificial 3D matrices suggesting that streaming potentials and/or dynamic changes in osmolarity may be important regulators of chondrocytes while cell deformation and fluid flow appear to have less of an effect.     

Chitosan–Chondroitin Sulfate Based Matrix Tablets for Colon Specific Delivery of Indomethacin

The different approaches for targeting orally administered drugs to the colon include coating with pH-dependent polymers, design of time-release dosage forms, and the utilization of carriers that are degraded exclusively by colonic bacteria. The aim of the present study was to develop a single unit, site-specific drug formulation allowing targeted drug release in the colon. Matrix tablets were prepared by wet granulation using cross-linked chitosan (ChI) and chondroitin sulfate (ChS) polysaccharides as binder and carrier. ChS was used to form polyelectrolyte complexes (PEC) with ChI, and its potential as a colon-targeted drug carrier was investigated. Indomethacin was used as a model drug. The ChI and ChS PEC was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and powder X-ray diffraction studies (XRD). The matrix tablets were tested in vitro for their suitability as colon-specific drug delivery systems. FTIR demonstrated that the PEC forms through an electrostatic interaction between the protonated amine (NH₃⁺) group of ChI with the free carboxylate (COO⁻) group and sulfate (SO₄²⁻) group of ChS. DSC and XRD indicated that the PEC has different thermal characteristics from ChI or ChS. The dissolution data demonstrates that the dissolution rate of the tablet is dependent upon the concentration of polysaccharide used as binder and matrix and time of cross-linking. The study confirmed that selective delivery of indomethacin to the colon can be achieved using cross-linked ChI and ChS polysaccharides.     

Novel proteoglycan glycotechnology: chemoenzymatic synthesis of chondroitin sulfate-containing molecules and its application

Proteoglycans consist of a protein core, with one or more glycosaminoglycan chains (i.e., chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate and heparin sulfate) bound covalently to it. The glycosaminoglycan chains account for many of the functions and properties of proteoglycans. The development of proteoglycan glycotechnology to exploit the functionality of glycosaminoglycan chains is an extremely important aspect of glycobiology. Here we describe an efficient and widely applicable method for chemoenzymatic synthesis of conjugate compounds comprising intact long chondroitin sulfate (ChS) chains. An alkyne containing ChS was prepared by an enzymatic transfer reaction and linked with a chemically synthesized core compound containing an azido group using click chemistry. This method enabled highly efficient introduction of ChS into target materials. Furthermore, the ChS-introduced compounds had marked stability against proteolysis, and the chemically linked ChS chain contributed to the stability of these core compounds. We believe the present method will contribute to the development of proteoglycan glycobiology and technology.     

Chondroitin sulfate and dynamic loading alter chondrogenesis of human MSCs in PEG hydrogels

While biochemical and biomechanical cues are known to play important roles in directing stem cell differentiation, there remains little known regarding how these inextricably linked biological cues impact the differentiation fate of human marrow stromal cells (hMSCs). This study investigates the chondrogenic differentiation potential of hMSCs when encapsulated in a three dimensional (3D) hydrogel and exposed to a biochemical cue, chondroitin sulfate (ChS), a biomechanical cue, dynamic loading, and their combination. hMSCs were encapsulated in bioinert poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels only, PEG hydrogels modified with covalently incorporated methacrylated ChS and cultured under free swelling conditions or subjected to delayed intermittent dynamic loading for 2 weeks. The 3D hydrogel environment led to the expression of chondrogenic genes (SOX9) and proteins (aggrecan and collagen II), but also upregulated hypertrophic genes (RUNX2 and Col X mRNA) and proteins (collagen X), while the application of loading generally led to a downregulation in chondrogenic proteins (collagen II). The presence of ChS led to elevated levels of aggrecan, but also collagen I, protein expression and when combined with dynamic loading downregulated, but did not suppress, hypertrophic genes (Col X and RUNX2) and collagen I protein expression. Taken together, this study demonstrates that while the 3D environment induces early terminal differentiation during chondrogenesis of hMSCs, the incorporation of ChS into PEG hydrogels may slow the terminal differentiation process down the hypertrophic lineage particularly when dynamic loading is applied. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2012; 109: 2671–2682. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Nikkomycin Z counteracts rylux BSU and Congo red inhibition ofSaccharomyces cerevisiae growth but does not prevent formation of aberrant cell walls

Rylux BSU and Congo red bind to chitin, interfere with proper cell-wall assembly, and stimulate chitin synthesis by increasing, most probably, chitin synthase 3 (ChS3) levels inSaccharomyces cerevisiae. On the other hand, the antibiotic nikkomycin Z inhibits chitin synthesis competitively. As ChS3 is the critical target of nikkomycin Z, its effect was tested in cells inhibited in growth by Rylux BSU or Congo red. Nikkomycin Z counteracted this inhibition but did not counteract aberrant cell-wall formation. These results indicate that chitin synthesis stimulation is the key step in Rylux BSU and Congo red inhibition and support the idea that increase in chitin synthesis represents a compensatory response to damaged cell-wall structure. As Rylux BSU and Congo red bind to newly synthesized chitin, further damage is caused in the wall and the response works in this case contrariwise. Nikkomycin Z breaks this vicious circle by counteracting the chitin synthesis stimulation.