Autotaxin induces lung epithelial cell migration through lysoPLD activity-dependent and -independent pathways

Lung cell migration is a crucial step for re-epithelialization that in turn is essential for remodelling and repair after lung injury. In the present paper we hypothesize that secreted ATX (autotaxin), which exhibits lysoPLD (lysophospholipase D) activity, stimulates lung epithelial cell migration through LPA (lysophosphatidic acid) generation-dependent and -independent pathways. Release of endogenous ATX protein and activity was detected in lung epithelial cell culture medium. ATX with V5 tag overexpressed conditional medium had higher LPA levels compared with control medium and stimulated cell migration through G(αi)-coupled LPA receptors, cytoskeleton rearrangement, phosphorylation of PKC (protein kinase C) δ and cortactin at the leading edge of migrating cells. Inhibition of PKCδ attenuated ATX-V5 overexpressed conditional medium-mediated phosphorylation of cortactin. In addition, a recombinant ATX mutant, lacking lysoPLD activity, or heat-inactived ATX also induced lung epithelial cell migration. Extracelluar ATX bound to the LPA receptor and integrin β4 complex on A549 cell surface. Finally, intratracheal administration of LPS (lipopolysaccharide) into the mouse airway induced ATX release and LPA production in BAL (bronchoalveolar lavage) fluid. These results suggested a significant role for ATX in lung epithelial cell migration and remodelling through its ability to induce LPA production-mediated phosphorylation of PKCδ and cortactin. In addition we also demonstrated association of ATX with the epithelial cell-surface LPA receptor and integrin β4.     

Lysophospholipase D and its role in LPA production

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is an important lipid mediator that binds to G-protein-coupled receptors of the Edg family, inducing proliferation and migration in many cell lines. Much has been learned about pathways involved in LPA signaling, but the pathways responsible for LPA production remain to be fully resolved. Several potential routes have been proposed for LPA production. One involves the sequential actions of phopholipase D (PLD) and phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)). Another route involves the sequential actions of PLA(2) and lysophospholipase D (lysoPLD). LysoPLD is defined as an enzyme which hydrolyzes lysophospholipids to produce LPA. Two major forms of lysoPLD, microsomal and extracellular forms, have been reported. A microsomal lysoPLD plays an important role in the metabolism of platelet-activating factor (PAF) because of its preference for alkyl-phospholipids. The extracellular form of lysoPLD coexists with its substrate, lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), in the extracellular compartment. LysoPLDs purified from the extracellular space have recently been shown to be molecularly identical to autotaxin (ATX). ATX, an enzyme previously known to possess 5'-nucleotide pyrophosphatase and phosphodiesterase (PDE) activities, was subsequently shown to have lysoPLD activity. The unexpected linkage of the extracellular lysoPLD with ATX has raised many interesting questions. The characterization and purification of lysoPLDs are reviewed here.     

Autotaxin has lysophospholipase D activity leading to tumor cell growth and motility by lysophosphatidic acid production

Autotaxin (ATX) is a tumor cell motility-stimulating factor, originally isolated from melanoma cell supernatants. ATX had been proposed to mediate its effects through 5'-nucleotide pyrophosphatase and phosphodiesterase activities. However, the ATX substrate mediating the increase in cellular motility remains to be identified. Here, we demonstrated that lysophospholipase D (lysoPLD) purified from fetal bovine serum, which catalyzes the production of the bioactive phospholipid mediator, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), from lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), is identical to ATX. The Km value of ATX for LPC was 25-fold lower than that for the synthetic nucleoside substrate, p-nitrophenyl-tri-monophosphate. LPA mediates multiple biological functions including cytoskeletal reorganization, chemotaxis, and cell growth through activation of specific G protein-coupled receptors. Recombinant ATX, particularly in the presence of LPC, dramatically increased chemotaxis and proliferation of multiple different cell lines. Moreover, we demonstrate that several cancer cell lines release significant amounts of LPC, a substrate for ATX, into the culture medium. The demonstration that ATX and lysoPLD are identical suggests that autocrine or paracrine production of LPA contributes to tumor cell motility, survival, and proliferation. It also provides potential novel targets for therapy of pathophysiological states including cancer.     

Autotaxin的结构与功能

Autotaxin(ATX)是一个分泌型糖蛋白,具有磷酸二酯酶(PDE)活性,是胞外焦磷酸酶/磷酸二酯酶(ENPP)家族的一员.ATX还具有溶血磷脂酶D(lysoPLD)活性,能够以溶血磷脂酰胆碱(lysophosphatidylcholjne,LPC)为底物催化生成溶血磷脂酸(lysophosphatidic acid,LPA).ATX在很多肿瘤细胞中都有高表达,在肿瘤的发生、发展过程中有着重要作用,被认为是肿瘤治疗中一个可能的靶位.此外,ATX在神经系统、免疫系统中也发挥重要作用.目前已经建立了一系列快速检测ATX活性的方法,并在此基础上研发了相关疾病的诊断技术.基于ATX的多功能性,对其表达调控机理的研究和抑制剂的开发成为当前的研究热点.     

Purification and characterization of lysophospholipase D from rat brain

A lysophospholipase D (lysoPLD) was purified to apparent homogeneity from rat brain nuclear fractions using 1-[(14)C]palmitoyl-glycerophosphorylcholine as a substrate. The abundance of autotaxin (ATX), a secretory lysoPLD, was also estimated for each fraction. The nuclear fraction had relatively high levels of lysoPLD activity but weak immunoreactivity with an anti-ATX antibody. LysoPLD activity was further purified 5550-fold by sequential chromatography. The final preparation migrated as a single band with a molecular weight of 35,000. Anti-ATX antibodies did not cross-react with the purified enzyme. Moreover, enzyme activity was highest at pH 7.0-7.5 and requires Mg(2+). The Km and Vmax values for 1-palmitoyl-glycerophosphorylcholine were 176 microM and 0.3 micromol/min/mg, respectively. The purified enzyme hydrolyzed saturated forms of LPC more robustly than unsaturated forms. The enzyme could hydrolyze platelet-activating factor (PAF) to the same extent as 16:0-LPC, and showed a higher activity toward lysoPAF (1-O-hexadecyl-2-lyso-glycerophosphorylcholine). These results suggested that the lysoPLD purified from rat brain nuclear fractions in this work is a novel enzyme that hydrolyzes lysoPAF, PAF, and LPC to liberate choline.     

Production of bioactive lysophosphatidic acid by lysophospholipase D in hen egg white

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a lysophospholipid mediator, is produced extracellularly by lysophospholipase D (lysoPLD) secreted in several animal body fluids including blood plasma. Previously, we reported that hen egg white contains polyunsaturated fatty acid-rich LPA. In this study, we examined whether lysoPLD is involved in the production of LPA in hen egg white. LysoPLD activity was measured by determining LPA and choline by mass spectrometric and enzyme-linked fluorometric analyses, respectively. LysoPLD increased with increased dilution of egg white, indicating that one or more components of egg white strongly inhibit its lysoPLD activity. This dilution-dependent increase in the lysoPLD activity was masked by co-incubation of the egg white with lysozyme, a major protein in hen egg white. Furthermore, addition of Zn(2+), Mn(2+), Ni(2+), or Co(2+) to diluted egg white altered preference patterns of lysoPLD toward choline-containing substrates. In particular, the egg white lysoPLD activity was greatly increased when Co(2+) was added. The cation-requirement of lysoPLD activity in hen egg white resembled that of plasma autotaxin (ATX)/lysoPLD. Western blot analysis revealed that egg white contained a protein that was immunostained with anti-ATX antibody. These results suggested that LPA in hen egg white is produced from lysophospholipids, especially LPC, by the action of ATX/lysoPLD, possibly originating from hen oviduct fluid.     

Thematic Review Series: Lysophospholipids and their Receptors: Autotaxin: structure-function and signaling

Autotaxin (ATX), or ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase-2, is a secreted lysophospholipase D (lysoPLD) that hydrolyzes extracellular lysophospholipids into the lipid mediator lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a ligand for specific G protein-coupled receptors. ATX-LPA signaling is essential for development and has been implicated in a great diversity of (patho)physiological processes, ranging from lymphocyte homing to tumor progression. Structural and functional studies have revealed what makes ATX a unique lysoPLD, and how secreted ATX binds to its target cells. The ATX catalytic domain shows a characteristic bimetallic active site followed by a shallow binding groove that can accommodate nucleotides as well as the glycerol moiety of lysophospholipids, and by a deep lipid-binding pocket. In addition, the catalytic domain has an open tunnel of unknown function adjacent to the active site. Here, we discuss our current understanding of ATX structure-function relationships and signaling mechanisms, and how ATX isoforms use distinct mechanisms to target LPA production to the plasma membrane, notably binding to integrins and heparan sulfate proteoglycans. We also briefly discuss the development of drug-like inhibitors of ATX.     

Isolation of a prokaryotic plasmin receptor. Relationship to a plasminogen activator produced by the same micro-organism.

Plasminogen receptors have been identified on the surface of a number of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. A receptor demonstrating high affinity for plasmin with minimal reactivity with the native zymogen Glu-plasminogen has been identified on the surface of certain group A streptococci. In this study the group A streptococcal plasmin receptor has been solubilized and purified to homogeneity. The isolated protein was an Mr approximately 41,000 molecule which retained its ability to bind plasmin following solubilization and affinity purification on a column of enzymatically inactivated human plasmin. The isolated plasmin receptor was compared functionally, antigenically, and physicochemically to the secreted plasminogen activator, streptokinase, produced by the same organism. The Mr approximately 41,000 surface plasmin receptor was shown to be functionally and antigenically distinct from the Mr approximately 48,000 streptokinase molecule produced by the same strain and lacked any plasminogen activator activity. The streptokinase molecule produced by this strain was shown to be closely related to the plasminogen activator protein secreted by other group A and C streptococci. This study represents the first report of the isolation of a plasmin receptor, either prokaryotic or eukaryotic, with functional activity.     

人SCYL1-BP1重组蛋白的原核表达及分离纯化鉴定

前期研究结果发现,SCYL1-BP1具有细胞周期调控功能,同时具有肿瘤抑制因子的特性。目的:采用基因工程技术,构建SCYL1-BP1的大肠杆菌重组表达菌株,以获得足够量的高纯度目的蛋白,为后面进行一系列药理学检测及新药安全性测试奠定基础。方法:利用从人胎脑cDNA文库中克隆得到SCYL1-BP1基因克隆为模板,经PCR扩增,通过酶切位点克隆到新型原核表达载体pET-28b-SUMO上,转化大肠杆菌表达菌BL21(DE3)。经IPTG诱导表达,摸索优化表达条件,表达产物经Ni柱进行亲和层析纯化,后再进行SDS-PAGE和Western blot等分析鉴定。结果:成功构建了SCYL1-BP1的原核表达工程菌BL21(DE3)/pET-28b-SUMO-SCYL1BP1。SDS-PAGE和Western blot检验结果表明,诱导表达的融合蛋白His6-SUMO-SCYL1BP1的分子量约为65 kDa,主要以可溶的形式存在,且能被His标签抗体和SCYL1-BP1单克隆抗体特异性识别。结论:原核表达并纯化了人SCYL1-BP1融合蛋白,为其后续功能研究及性质实验奠定基础。     

Novel method for expression and purification of human pigment epithelium-derived factor with biological activities in Escherichia coli

We developed a novel method for the expression and purification of recombinant human PEDF in Escherchia coli, and proved it to be simple, convenient, and cheap to obtain this protein with biological activity intact. Human PEDF gene, amplified by PCR from human retinal cNDA library, was cloned into the prokaryotic expression vector pET-22b(+). The recombinant pET-22b(+)/PEDF was expressed in E. coli strain BL21(DE3). The recombinant protein showed a molecular weight of about 50 kDa and was mainly in the form of inclusion bodies according to SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis. The insoluble rPEDF was solublized from inclusion bodies by denaturation using 6 M urea, purified by His-tag affinity chromatography, and renatured to natural structure by dialysis in the presence of DTT. The rPEDF could cell-type-specifically inhibit HRCEC proliferation in a dose-dependent manner and induce HRCEC apoptosis.     

无标签重组人硫氧还蛋白的大规模表达、纯化及活性检测

目的:利用基因工程的方法原核表达无标签的重组人硫氧还蛋白(rhTrx)并对其进行大规模表达、纯化和鉴定.方法:从人胚胎肾HEK293细胞中提取总RNA,反转录合成cDNA,经PCR扩增、酶切后连入pET-22b(+)载体构建重组质粒,重组质粒转化大肠杆菌BL21( DE3)感受态细胞,IPTG诱导表达,经两步离子交换层析纯化重组蛋白,采用SDS-PAGE、Western blotting、HPLC、MALDI-TOF-MS及经典的胰岛素二硫键还原法对重组蛋白进行鉴定.结果:构建成功了rhTrx基因表达载体;实现了rhTrx在原核细胞中的可溶性表达;纯化出的蛋白经SDS-PAGE和Western blotting分析证实为rhTrx;HPLC和MALDI-TOF-MS分析表明,纯化出的目的蛋白纯度大于95％;胰岛素二硫键还原法证实纯化出的rhTrx具有生物学活性.结论:成功构建了rhTrx的原核表达体系,建立了rhTrx的纯化和鉴定方法,为其进一步的理论研究和生产开发提供了有效基础数据.     

重组人钙网蛋白的克隆与原核表达

［摘要］目的: 克隆人钙网蛋白（calreticulin,CRT）并在E.coli中原核表达和纯化。方法：采用RT-PCR 法从人非小细胞肺腺癌A549细胞总RNA中克隆人钙网蛋白cDNA,构建CRT原核表达质粒（pET-15b/CRT）并转化E.coli 的Rossetta菌株。IPTG诱导后,表达蛋白在变性条件下经Ni-NTA 树脂亲和层析纯化,然后透析复性。分别用SDS-PAGE和Western blotting法鉴定CRT表达和纯化状态。结果：从A549细胞总RNA中成功获得人CRT cDNA克隆,重组质粒pET-15b/CRT构建正确。转化pET-15b/CRT的E.coli Rossetta诱导性表达重组人CRT蛋白,该蛋白可经Ni-NTA树脂亲和层析高度纯化。结论：成功建立了CRT原核表达和纯化的实验方法,该方法为后续的CRT蛋白功能研究奠定了基础。     

人肿瘤坏死因子α抑制肽-抗炎酸性尾巴融合蛋白的原核表达及纯化

目的:表达和纯化人肿瘤坏死因子α抑制肽-抗炎酸性尾巴融合蛋白。方法:利用PCR搭接方法及基因合成方法获得目的基因,插入带有6×His标签的原核高效可溶性表达载体pET32a中,构建重组表达质粒pET32a-T9-ac-9,将重组表达质粒转化大肠杆菌BL21(DE3),经IPTG诱导目的基因表达;对融合蛋白进行Ni2+金属螯合柱纯化。结果:构建的重组表达质粒经PCR、内切酶鉴定及基因序列测定证实;目的蛋白在大肠杆菌中获得表达,SDS-PAGE显示相对分子质量为22.917×103;对表达产物进行了亲和层析纯化,从上清中获得了纯度较高的人肿瘤坏死因子α抑制肽-抗炎酸性尾巴融合蛋白。结论:获得了可溶性的人肿瘤坏死因子α抑制肽-抗炎酸性尾巴融合蛋白,为其生物学功能研究奠定了基础。     

Peritoneal fluids from patients with certain gynecologic tumor contain elevated levels of bioactive lysophospholipase D activity

Levels of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), an important phospholipid mediator, in serum and ascitic fluid from ovarian cancer patients were shown to be higher than those from healthy women and from patients with other type of cancer, respectively. Although LPA in human serum seems mainly to be generated by lysophospholipase D (lysoPLD), the source and pathway for LPA in the ascitic fluid remain still obscure. In this study, we examined whether lysoPLD activity producing bioactive LPA in human peritoneal fluid was significantly elevated under pathological statuses. Lysophospholipase D activity in human peritoneal fluids was measured by quantifying choline released from exogenous lysophosphatidylcholine on their incubation at 37 degrees C. We also compared the activity of lysoPLD in sera from patients with different gynecologic diseases. We found relatively high lysoPLD activity in peritoneal fluids from patients with ovarian cancer, dermoid cyst or mucinous cystadenoma, whereas there were no significant differences in the serum lysoPLD activity among clinical groups and healthy subjects. The lysoPLD in the peritoneal fluid was found to have similar substrate specificity and metal ion requirement to those of serum lysoPLD, that has been identified as autotaxin, a tumor cell-motility stimulating protein. Our results suggest that increased lysoPLD activity in peritoneal fluid from patients with certain gynecologic tumors might be relevant to its potential of tumor progression.     

Phosphatase-resistant analogues of lysophosphatidic acid: agonists promote healing, antagonists and autotaxin inhibitors treat cancer

Isoform-selective agonists and antagonists of the lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have important potential applications in cell biology and therapy. LPA GPCRs regulate cancer cell proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, and also biochemical resistance to chemotherapy- and radiotherapy-induced apoptosis. LPA and its analogues also are feedback inhibitors of the enzyme lysophospholipase D (lysoPLD, a.k.a., autotaxin, ATX), a central regulator of invasion and metastasis. For cancer therapy, the optimal therapeutic profile would be a metabolically-stabilized, pan-LPA receptor antagonist that also inhibited lysoPLD. For protection of gastrointestinal mucosa and lymphocytes, LPA agonists would be desirable to minimize or reverse radiation or chemical-induced injury. Analogues of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) that are chemically modified to be less susceptible to phospholipases and phosphatases show activity as long-lived receptor-specific agonists and antagonists for LPA receptors, as well as inhibitors for the lysoPLD activity of ATX.     

Cancer Cell Expression of Autotaxin Controls Bone Metastasis Formation in Mouse through Lysophosphatidic Acid-Dependent Activation of Osteoclasts

Background

Bone metastases are highly frequent complications of breast cancers. Current bone metastasis treatments using powerful anti-resorbtive agents are only palliative indicating that factors independent of bone resorption control bone metastasis progression. Autotaxin (ATX/NPP2) is a secreted protein with both oncogenic and pro-metastatic properties. Through its lysosphospholipase D (lysoPLD) activity, ATX controls the level of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) in the blood. Platelet-derived LPA promotes the progression of osteolytic bone metastases of breast cancer cells. We asked whether ATX was involved in the bone metastasis process. We characterized the role of ATX in osteolytic bone metastasis formation by using genetically modified breast cancer cells exploited on different osteolytic bone metastasis mouse models.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Intravenous injection of human breast cancer MDA-B02 cells with forced expression of ATX (MDA-B02/ATX) to inmmunodeficiency BALB/C nude mice enhanced osteolytic bone metastasis formation, as judged by increased bone loss, tumor burden, and a higher number of active osteoclasts at the metastatic site. Mouse breast cancer 4T1 cells induced the formation of osteolytic bone metastases after intracardiac injection in immunocompetent BALB/C mice. These cells expressed active ATX and silencing ATX expression inhibited the extent of osteolytic bone lesions and decreased the number of active osteoclasts at the bone metastatic site. In vitro, osteoclast differentiation was enhanced in presence of MDA-B02/ATX cell conditioned media or recombinant autotaxin that was blocked by the autotaxin inhibitor vpc8a202. In vitro, addition of LPA to active charcoal-treated serum restored the capacity of the serum to support RANK-L/MCSF-induced osteoclastogenesis.

Conclusion/Significance

Expression of autotaxin by cancer cells controls osteolytic bone metastasis formation. This work demonstrates a new role for LPA as a factor that stimulates directly cancer growth and metastasis, and osteoclast differentiation. Therefore, targeting the autotaxin/LPA track emerges as a potential new therapeutic approach to improve the outcome of patients with bone metastases.     

小鼠精胺氧化酶的原核表达与鉴定

目的:原核表达和分离纯化小鼠精胺氧化酶(SMO)。方法:采用RT-PCR法从小鼠胚胎干细胞(ES细胞)RNA中克隆小鼠SMOcDNA,构建SMO原核表达质粒并转染大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)菌株,经IPTG诱导,将表达的小鼠SMO重组蛋白在变性条件下经Ni-NTA树脂亲和层析纯化和透析复性。结果:在大肠杆菌中高表达出小鼠SMO重组蛋白;纯化并透析复性后的重组SMO具备快速氧化特异性底物精胺的酶活性。结论:建立了原核表达和纯化有活性小鼠SMO的实验方法。     

Inhibition of autotaxin by lysophosphatidic acid and sphingosine 1-phosphate

Autotaxin (ATX) or nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 2 (NPP2) is an NPP family member that promotes tumor cell motility, experimental metastasis, and angiogenesis. ATX primarily functions as a lysophospholipase D, generating the lipid mediator lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) from lysophosphatidylcholine. ATX uses a single catalytic site for the hydrolysis of both lipid and non-lipid phosphodiesters, but its regulation is not well understood. Using a new fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based phosphodiesterase sensor that reports ATX activity with high sensitivity, we show here that ATX is potently and specifically inhibited by LPA and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) in a mixed-type manner (Ki approximately 10(-7) M). The homologous ecto-phosphodiesterase NPP1, which lacks lysophospholipase D activity, is insensitive to LPA and S1P. Our results suggest that, by repressing ATX activity, LPA can regulate its own biosynthesis in the extracellular environment, and they reveal a novel role for S1P as an inhibitor of ATX, in addition to its well established role as a receptor ligand.     

Kinetic properties of human dopamine sulfotransferase (SULT1A3) expressed in prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems: comparison with the recombinant enzyme purified from Escherichia coli.

Sulfation, catalyzed by members of the sulfotransferase enzyme family, is a major metabolic pathway which modulates the biological activity of numerous endogenous and xenobiotic chemicals. A number of these enzymes have been expressed in prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems to produce protein for biochemical and physical characterization. However, the effective use of heterologous expression systems to produce recombinant enzymes for such purposes depends upon the expressed protein faithfully representing the "native" protein. For human sulfotransferases, little attention has been paid to this despite the widespread use of recombinant enzymes. Here we have validated a number of heterologous expression systems for producing the human dopamine-metabolizing sulfotransferase SULT1A3, including Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, COS-7, and V79 cells, by comparison of Km values of the recombinant enzyme in cell extracts with enzyme present in human platelets and with recombinant enzyme purified to homogeneity following E. coli expression. This is the first report of heterologous expression of a cytosolic sulfotransferase in yeast. Expression of SULT1A3 was achieved in all cell types, and the Km for dopamine under the conditions applied was approximately 1 microM in all heterologous systems studied, which compared favorably with the value determined with human platelets. We also determined the subunit and native molecular weights of the purified recombinant enzyme by SDS-PAGE, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, dynamic light scattering, and sedimentation analysis. The enzyme purified following expression in E. coli existed as a homodimer with Mr approximately 68,000 as determined by light scattering and sedimentation analysis. Mass spectrometry revealed two species with experimentally determined masses of 34,272 and 34,348 which correspond to the native protein with either one or two 2-mercaptoethanol adducts. We conclude that the enzyme expressed in prokaryotic and eukaryotic heterologous systems, and also purified from E. coli, equates to that which is found in human tissue preparations.