The geographic distribution of seed-dispersal mutualisms in North America

It is often difficult to determine the relative importance of different sorts of species interactions in shaping community structure or how communities function because we lack basic information on patterns of occurrence of biotic interactions. Here we determine the geographic distribution of seed-dispersal mutualisms across North America, and then test the hypotheses that those patterns are correlated with mean annual precipitation and latitude. We analyze the floras of 197 sites across North America to identify which species of native seed plants are dispersed by animals in one of three types of plant-animal mutualisms: frugivory, scatter hoarding, and ants. We identified 1655 plant species that are involved in these seed-dispersal mutualisms. 16.5 ± 6.5% of all seed plants across North America are dispersed by animals; 10.0 ± 4.2% by frugivores, 3.7 ± 1.7% by scatter hoarders, and 3.9 ± 2.2% by ants. Secondary dispersal by a different mode and vector (e.g., wind dispersal followed by scatter hoarding, or ballistic dispersal followed by myrmecochory) occurred in 16.8% of all plant mutualist records. Although each mode of dispersal showed a different pattern, the prevalence of seed-dispersal mutualisms increased with mean annual precipitation. The prevalence of seed dispersal by frugivory and scatter-hoarding decreased with increasing latitude. The prevalence of seed-dispersal interactions varies dramatically across North America. The center of greatest diversity for all three types of seed-dispersal mutualisms is the eastern United States, roughly coincident with the eastern deciduous forest. Knowing the distribution of species interactions improves our understanding of how the structure and functioning of communities varies across environmental gradients.     

Seed dispersal of fleshy-fruited invasive plants by birds: contributing factors and management options

The ecology of seed dispersal by vertebrates has been investigated extensively over recent decades, yet only limited research has been conducted on how suites of invasive plants and frugivorous birds interact. In this review, we examine how plant fruit traits (morphology, colour and display, nutritional quality, accessibility and phenology), avian traits (fruit handling techniques, gut passage time and effect, bird movements and social behaviour and dietary composition) and landscape structure (fruit neighbourhood, habitat loss and fragmentation and perch tree effects) affect frugivory and seed dispersal in invasive plants. This functional approach could be used to develop generic models of seed dispersal distributions for suites of invasive plant species and improve management efficiencies. Four broad research approaches are described that could direct management of bird‐dispersed invasive plants at the landscape scale, by manipulating dispersal. First, research is needed to quantify the effect of biological control agents on dispersal, particularly how changes in fruit production and/or quality affect fruit choice by frugivores, dispersal distributions of seed and post‐dispersal processes. Second, we explore how seed dispersal could be directed, such as by manipulating perch structures and/or vegetation density to attract frugivorous birds after they have been foraging on invasive plant fruits. Third, the major sources of seed spread could be identified and removed (i.e. targeting core or satellite infestations, particular habitats and creating barrier zones). Fourth, alternative food resources could be provided for frugivores, to replace fruits of invasive plants, and their use quantified.     

Can Functional Traits Predict Ecological Interactions? A Case Study Using Rain forest Frugivores and Plants in Australia

In rain forest, the large numbers of species of fleshy-fruited plants and frugivorous animals result in a large number of potential fruit–frugivore interactions, which are challenging to survey in the field. Yet, knowledge of these relationships is needed to predict consequences of changes in the frugivore assemblage for seed dispersal. In the absence of comprehensive dietary information, it may be possible to delineate between frugivores that disperse different plants using ‘functional traits,’ or morphological and behavioral attributes of frugivores that interact with differences in salient characteristics of plant species. Here we use data on the consumption of 244 Australian rain forest plant species by 38 bird species to test for associations between patterns of frugivory and birds': (1) degree of frugivory, (2) gape width, and (3) seed treatment (seed crushing or seed dispersing). Degree of frugivory and gape width explain 74 percent of the variation in the sizes of fruits consumed by frugivorous birds. Among birds that consume a substantial dietary proportion of fruit, birds with wider gapes consume larger fruits. In contrast, this relationship was not shown by birds for which fruit is only a minor dietary component. Degree of frugivory and gape width, together with seed treatment, also strongly predict the overall taxonomic composition and diversity of plants consumed by bird species. Functional classifications of frugivore species may prove useful in developing a predictive understanding of fruit–frugivore interactions in other rain forest regions where detailed dietary information is not available for most frugivores.     

The functional roles of species in metacommunities,as revealed by metanetwork analyses of bird–plant frugivory networks

Understanding how biodiversity and interaction networks change across environmental gradients is a major challenge in ecology. We integrated metacommunity and metanetwork perspectives to test species’ functional roles in bird–plant frugivory interactions in a fragmented forest landscape in Southwest China, with consequences for seed dispersal. Availability of fruit resources both on and under trees created vertical feeding stratification for frugivorous birds. Bird–plant interactions involving birds feeding only on‐the‐tree or both on and under‐the‐tree (shared) had a higher centrality and contributed more to metanetwork organisation than interactions involving birds feeding only under‐the‐tree. Moreover, bird–plant interactions associated with large‐seeded plants disproportionately contributed to metanetwork organisation and centrality. Consequently, on‐the‐tree and shared birds contributed more to metanetwork organisation whereas under‐the‐tree birds were more involved in local processes. We would expect that species’ roles in the metanetwork will translate into different conservation values for maintaining functioning of seed‐dispersal networks.     

Frugivore diversity increases frugivory rates along a large elevational gradient

The effect of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning is increasingly well understood, but it has mainly been studied in small‐scale experiments of plant‐based ecosystem functions. In contrast, the relevance of biodiversity for animal‐mediated ecosystem functions like seed dispersal still poses an important gap in ecological knowledge. In particular, it is little understood how avian diversity affects frugivory rates, one of the most important parameters of seed dispersal rates, along large environmental gradients. Even less is known about the environmental context dependence of the frugivore–frugivory relationship. We used artificial fruits to analyze experimentally how the abundance and richness of three avian frugivore guilds (with incrementally more stringent classifications of frugivory) contributed to frugivory rates across 13 different habitat types along an elevational gradient from 870 to 4550 m a.s.l. at Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. We further investigated how environmental context, in terms of local vegetation structure and natural fruit availability, modified the relationship between frugivores and frugivory rates. Our results demonstrate that the positive effect of avian diversity on frugivory rates holds along a large elevational gradient. We found marked differences in frugivory rates among the 13 habitat types, which were strongly related to the abundance and richness of obligate frugivorous birds. Vegetation structure had no significant effect on frugivory rates. An intermediate abundance of natural fruits enhanced frugivory rates, but this effect did not alter the positive frugivore–frugivory relationship. These results emphasize the fundamental importance of obligate frugivore diversity for frugivory rates and suggest that the positive effect of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning holds along large environmental gradients.     

Fragmentation, habitat composition and the dispersal/predation balance in interactions between the Mediterranean myrtle and avian frugivores

Human‐induced fragmentation and disturbance of natural habitats can shift abundance and composition of frugivore assemblages, which may alter patterns of frugivory and seed dispersal. However, despite their relevance to the functioning of ecosystems, plant‐frugivore interactions in fragmented areas have been to date poorly studied. I investigated spatial variation of avian frugivore assemblages and fruit removal by dispersers and predators from Mediterranean myrtle shrubs (Myrtus communis) in relation to the degree of fragmentation and habitat features of nine woodland patches (72 plants). The study was conducted within the chronically fragmented landscape of the Guadalquivir Valley (SW Spain), characterized by ~1% of woodland cover. Results showed that the abundance and composition of the disperser guild was not affected by fragmentation, habitat features or geographical location. However, individual species and groups of resident/migrant birds responded differently: whereas resident dispersers were more abundant in large patches, wintering dispersers were more abundant in fruit‐rich patches. Predator abundances were similar between patches, although the guild composition shifted with fragmentation. The proportion of myrtle fruits consumed by dispersers and predators varied greatly between patches, but did not depend on bird abundances. The geographical location of patches determined the presence or absence of interactions between myrtles and seed predators (six predated and three non‐predated patches), a fact that greatly influenced fruit dispersal success. Moreover, predation rates were lower (and dispersal rates higher) in large patches with fruit‐poor heterospecific environments (i.e. dominated by myrtle). Predator satiation and a higher preference for heterospecific fruits by dispersers may explain these patterns. These results show that 1) the frugivore assemblage in warm Mediterranean lowlands is mostly composed of fragmentation‐tolerant species that respond differently to landscape changes; and 2) that the feeding behaviour of both dispersers and predators influenced by local fruit availability may be of great importance for interpreting patterns of frugivory throughout the study area.     

The global distribution of frugivory in birds

Aim To examine patterns of avian frugivory across clades, geography and environments. Location Global, including all six major biogeographical realms (Afrotropics, Australasia, Indo‐Malaya, Nearctic, Neotropics and Palaearctic). Methods First, we examine the taxonomic distribution of avian frugivory within orders and families. Second we evaluate, with traditional and spatial regression approaches, the geographical patterns of frugivore species richness and proportion. Third, we test the potential of contemporary climate (water–energy, productivity, seasonality), habitat heterogeneity (topography, habitat diversity) and biogeographical history (captured by realm membership) to explain geographical patterns of avian frugivory. Results Most frugivorous birds (50%) are found within the perching birds (Passeriformes), but the woodpeckers and allies (Piciformes), parrots (Psittaciformes) and pigeons (Columbiformes) also contain a significant number of frugivorous species (9–15%). Frugivore richness is highest in the Neotropics, but peaks in overall bird diversity in the Himalayan foothills, the East African mountains and in some areas of Brazil and Bolivia are not reflected by frugivores. Current climate explains more variance in species richness and proportion of frugivores than of non‐frugivores whereas it is the opposite for habitat heterogeneity. Actual evapotranspiration (AET) emerges as the best single climatic predictor variable of avian frugivory. Significant differences in frugivore richness and proportion between select biogeographical regions remain after differences in environment (i.e. AET) are accounted for. Main conclusions We present evidence that both environmental and historical constraints influence global patterns of avian frugivory. Whereas water–energy dynamics possibly constrain frugivore distribution via indirect effects on food plants, regional differences in avian frugivory most likely reflect historical contingencies related to the evolutionary history of fleshy fruited plant taxa, niche conservatism and past climate change. Overall our results support an important role of co‐diversification and environmental constraints on regional assembly over macroevolutionary time‐scales.     

Fruit removal rate depends on neighborhood fruit density,frugivore abundance,and spatial context

Fleshy-fruited plants depend fundamentally on interactions with frugivores for effective seed dispersal. Recent models of frugivory within spatially explicit networks make two general predictions regarding these interactions: rate of fruit removal increases (i.e., is facilitated) as densities of conspecific neighborhood fruits increase, and fruit removal rate varies positively with frugivore abundance. We conducted a field experiment that constitutes the first empirical and simultaneous test of these two primary predictions. We manipulated neighborhood abundances of arrowwood (Viburnum recognitum and Viburnum dentatum) fruits in southern New England’s maritime shrub community and monitored removal rates by autumn-migrating birds. Focal arrowwood plants in neighborhoods with high conspecific fruit density sustained moderately decreased fruit removal rates (i.e., competition) relative to those in low-density neighborhoods, a result that agrees with most field research to date but contrasts with theoretical expectation. We suggest the spatial contexts that favor competition (i.e., high-abundance neighborhoods and highly aggregated landscapes) are considerably more common than the relatively uniform, low-aggregation fruiting landscapes that promote facilitation. Patterns of arrowwood removal by avian frugivores generally varied positively with, and apparently in response to, seasonal changes in migratory frugivore abundance. However, we suggest that dense stands of arrowwood concentrated frugivore activity at the neighborhood scale, thus counteracting geographic patterns of frugivore abundance. Our results underscore the importance of considering spatial context (e.g., fruit distribution and aggregation, frugivory hubs) in plant-avian frugivore interactions.     

Ecological correlates of trophic status and frugivory in neotropical primates

Primates are among the most observable and best studied vertebrate order in tropical forest regions, with widespread attention dedicated to the feeding ecology of wild populations. In particular, primates play a key role as frugivores and seed‐dispersal agents for a myriad of tropical plants. Sampling effort by primatologists, however, has been unequally distributed, hampering quantitative comparisons of primate diets. We provide the first systematic review of primate diets, with an emphasis on frugivory, using a comprehensive compilation of 290 unique primate dietary studies from 164 localities in 17 countries across the entire Neotropical realm. We account for sampling effort (standardised as hours) in comparing the richness of fruiting plants recorded in primate diets, and the relative contribution of frugivory to the overall diet in relation to key life‐history traits, such as body mass. We find strong support for the long‐held hypothesis, based on Kay's Threshold, that body size imposes an upper limit on insectivory and a lower limit on folivory, and therefore that frugivory is most important at intermediate body sizes. However, the upper body mass limit of extant neotropical primates, truncated by the post‐Pleistocene megafaunal overkill, has implications for the extent of the frugivory–folivory continuum in extinct lineages. Contemporary threats faced by the largest primates serve as a further warning that the feeding ecology and diet of all neotropical primates remain severely undersampled with regard to the composition and richness of fruits consumed. Indeed, frugivorous primates expected to have the most species‐rich plant diets are amongst those most poorly sampled, exposing implications for our current understanding of primate–plant interaction networks.     

Effects of seed size and frugivory degree on dispersal by Neotropical frugivores

Large vertebrates are important elements of mutualistic interactions and provide positive impacts on plant population and community dynamics. Despite the increasing interest on vertebrate frugivory we are still not able to disentangle the real contribution of seed dispersal to Neotropical forest functioning. Consuming fruits does not imply effective seed dispersal and many variables, such as seed size and animal diet, may influence the outcome of plant-animal interactions. Here, we performed a comprehensive literature search on seed dispersal by Neotropical vertebrates (with a focus on primates) to closely approach their role as seed dispersers, hypothesizing frugivory degree and seed size as main drivers of fruit handling behavior and diversity of dispersed seeds. We found that the great majority of seeds manipulated by Neotropical primates, with exception to the seed predators pitheciins, were swallowed and passed intact through their gut. Larger seeds (>12 mm) tended of being ingested exclusively by primates and other large vertebrates, such as tapirs and peccaries. Furthermore, primate feeding guild had a great influence on the richness and sizes of seeds dispersed, as primarily frugivores dispersed more species and had higher probabilities of ingesting larger seeds when compared to other feeding guilds. Organizing available knowledge and filling the main knowledge gaps allowed us to validate common sense assumptions and ultimately draw new conclusions about the role played by primates together with other major frugivores in Neotropical forests.     

Did fleshy fruit pulp evolve as a defence against seed loss rather than as a dispersal mechanism?

Relatively few studies have examined the evolution of the mutualism between endozoochorous plants and seed dispersers. Most seed dispersal studies are ecological and examine the role of fruit pulp in promoting seed dispersal. This interaction is often assumed to have originated due to selection stemming from seed dispersers. Here I suggest a "defence scenario" wherein fleshy fruits originated as mechanisms to defend seeds and secondarily became structures to promote seed dispersal. I suggest that frugivory followed from herbivores that specialized on consuming seed defensive tissues and that enhanced seed dispersal was initially a consequence of seed defence. The proposed defence scenario is not posited as an explanation for the sequence that led to all modern frugivores. However, it is suggested that seed predation was the initial source of selection that led to fleshy fruits; the necessary precursor to frugivory. Support is described from the fossil record and from modern structures and interactions. Testable predictions are made in hope that greater interest will be focused on the defensive role of fleshy fruit pulp both in modern interactions and historically.     

Frugivores and cheap fruits make fruiting fruitful

Animal seed dispersal provides an important ecosystem service by strongly benefiting plant communities. There are several theoretical studies on the ecology of plant–animal seed–disperser interactions, but few studies have explored the evolution of this mutualism. Moreover, these studies ignore plant life history and frugivore foraging behaviour. Thus, it remains an open question what the conditions for the diversification of fruit traits are, in spite of the multitude of empirical studies on fruit trait diversity. Here, we study the evolution of fruit traits using a spatially explicit individual‐based model, which considers the costs associated with adaptations inducing dispersal by frugivory, as well as frugivore foraging behaviour and abundance. Our model predicts that these costs are the main determinants of the evolution of fruit traits and that when the costs are not very high, the evolution of larger fruit traits (e.g. fleshy/colourful fruits) is controlled by the choosiness and response thresholds of the frugivores as well as their numerical abundance.     

扩散生态学及其意义

扩散研究是生态学研究中的一个热点领域 ,而扩散生态学则是生物学领域一门新的分支学科。本文综述了扩散生态学研究的一些基本理论问题 ,包括扩散的定义、扩散生态学的研究内容及其与生物学其它分支学科的关系 ,并阐述了研究扩散的重要意义。扩散生态学的研究内容十分广泛 ,既涉及所有生物 (从微生物到脊椎动物 )的生态学 (如复合种群、群落、生态系统多样性、复杂性和稳定性 )和进化 (如种化 )等理论问题 ,又涉及物种保护、生物多样性保育、有害生物 (包括外来物种 )的控制、流行病防范、环境保护和人口管理等应用问题。因此 ,研究生物的扩散具有十分重要的理论和实践意义。     

Size-dependent ESS sex allocation in wind-pollinated cosexual plants: fecundity vs. stature effects

To theoretically investigate the single and compound effects of relative fecundity and relative stature of plants on size-dependent sex allocation (SDS) in wind-pollinated cosexual species, we developed a game model and analysed ESS sex allocation of large and small plants having totally or partially different reproductive resources and different pollen and seed dispersal areas in a population. We found that e.g. when both sized plants have large pollen dispersal areas relative to their seed dispersal areas, which plants are male-biased is largely determined by relative fecundity (t) and relative size of seed dispersal area (k) of the large plants to the small plants: If t >k, large plants tend to be more male-biased even if relative size of pollen dispersal area of large to small plants (l) is smaller than k. If t相似文献   

Estimation of Seed Shadows Generated by Andean Woolly Monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha lugens)

Seed dispersal is known to play an important role in the ecology and evolution of plant communities, and there is ample evidence that seed dispersal by primates influences plant population dynamics in tropical forests directly. We used nonparametric statistical methods to estimate the dispersal kernels, i.e., the probability that a seed is moved a particular distance, generated by woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha lugens) at a sub-Andean forest in Colombia and test the hypothesis that the time of feeding influences dispersal distances. We collected data on monkey ranging patterns with the aid of global positioning system (GPS) units and obtained information on gut retention times from behavioral follows to build a model based on the kernel density estimator. Woolly monkeys drop most seeds hundreds of meters from parent trees and only a small proportion of seeds within close proximity. The time of seed ingestion had a significant effect on dispersal kernels, with seeds from fruits consumed early in the day having a greater chance of landing farther away from the tree than seeds swallowed in the late afternoon. The results of this study build on previous findings suggesting that woolly monkeys have a positive effect on the fitness of plants, which may be exacerbated in mountain forests where the diversity of large frugivores is low.     

Frugivory by introduced black rats (Rattus rattus) promotes dispersal of invasive plant seeds

Oceanic islands have been colonized by numerous non-native and invasive plants and animals. An understanding of the degree to which introduced rats (Rattus spp.) may be spreading or destroying seeds of invasive plants can improve our knowledge of plant-animal interactions, and assist efforts to control invasive species. Feeding trials in which fruits and seeds were offered to wild-caught rats were used to assess the effects of the most common rat, the black rat (R. rattus), on 25 of the most problematic invasive plant species in the Hawaiian Islands. Rats ate pericarps (fruit tissues) and seeds of most species, and the impacts on these plants ranged from potential dispersal of small-seeded (≤1.5 mm length) species via gut passage (e.g., Clidemia hirta, Buddleia asiatica, Ficus microcarpa, Miconia calvescens, Rubus rosifolius) to predation where <15% of the seeds survived (e.g., Bischofia javanica, Casuarina equisetifolia, Prosopis pallida, Setaria palmifolia). Rats consumed proportionally more seed mass of the smaller fruits and seeds than the larger ones, but fruit and seed size did not predict seed survival following rat interactions. Although invasive rat control efforts focus on native species protection, non-native plant species, especially those with small seeds that may pass internally through rats, also deserve rat control in order to help limit the spread of such seeds. Black rats may be facilitating the spread of many of the most problematic invasive plants through frugivory and seed dispersal in Hawaii and in other ecosystems where rats and plants have been introduced.     

The relative contributions of seed and pollen dispersal to gene flow and genetic diversity in seedlings of a tropical palm

Seed and pollen dispersal shape patterns of gene flow and genetic diversity in plants. Pollen is generally thought to travel longer distances than seeds, but seeds determine the ultimate location of gametes. Resolving how interactions between these two dispersal processes shape microevolutionary processes is a long‐standing research priority. We unambiguously isolated the separate and combined contributions of these two dispersal processes in seedlings of the animal‐dispersed palm Oenocarpus bataua to address two questions. First, what is the spatial extent of pollen versus seed movement in a system characterized by long‐distance seed dispersal? Second, how does seed dispersal mediate seedling genetic diversity? Despite evidence of frequent long‐distance seed dispersal, we found that pollen moves much further than seeds. Nonetheless, seed dispersal ultimately mediates genetic diversity and fine‐scale spatial genetic structure. Compared to undispersed seedlings, seedlings dispersed by vertebrates were characterized by higher female gametic and diploid seedling diversity and weaker fine‐scale spatial genetic structure for female gametes, male gametes and diploid seedlings. Interestingly, the diversity of maternal seed sources at seed deposition sites (N _em) was associated with higher effective number of pollen sources (N _ep), higher effective number of parents (N _e) and weaker spatial genetic structure, whereas seed dispersal distance had little impact on these or other parameters we measured. These findings highlight the importance maternal seed source diversity (N _em) at frugivore seed deposition sites in driving emergent patterns of fine‐scale genetic diversity and structure.     

Climate change and plant regeneration from seed

At the core of plant regeneration, temperature and water supply are critical drivers for seed dormancy (initiation, break) and germination. Hence, global climate change is altering these environmental cues and will preclude, delay, or enhance regeneration from seeds, as already documented in some cases. Along with compromised seedling emergence and vigour, shifts in germination phenology will influence population dynamics, and thus, species composition and diversity of communities. Altered seed maturation (including consequences for dispersal) and seed mass will have ramifications on life history traits of plants. Predicted changes in temperature and precipitation, and thus in soil moisture, will affect many components of seed persistence in soil, e.g. seed longevity, dormancy release and germination, and soil pathogen activity. More/less equitable climate will alter geographic distribution for species, but restricted migratory capacity in some will greatly limit their response. Seed traits for weedy species could evolve relatively quickly to keep pace with climate change enhancing their negative environmental and economic impact. Thus, increased research in understudied ecosystems, on key issues related to seed ecology, and on evolution of seed traits in nonweedy species is needed to more fully comprehend and plan for plant responses to global warming.     

Seeds tend to disperse further in the tropics

Despite the importance of seed dispersal in a plant's life cycle, global patterns in seed dispersal distance have seldom been studied. This paper presents the first geographically and taxonomically broad quantification of the latitudinal gradient in seed dispersal distance. Although there is substantial variation in the seed dispersal distances of different species at a given latitude, seeds disperse on average more than an order of magnitude further at the equator than towards the poles. This pattern is partially explained by plant life‐history traits that simultaneously associate with seed dispersal distance and latitude, including dispersal mode and plant height. The extended seed shadow of tropical plants could increase the distance between conspecific individuals. This could facilitate species coexistence and contribute to the maintenance of high plant diversity in tropical communities. The latitudinal gradient in dispersal distance also has implications for species’ persistence in the face of habitat fragmentation and climate change.     

Patterns of frugivory in the columnar cactus Pilosocereus leucocephalus

In the frugivory networks of many arid and semi‐arid Mesoamerican ecosystems, columnar cacti act as keystone species that produce fruits with a high content of water and nutrients attractive to numerous vertebrates. The aim of this investigation was to assess the fruit removal patterns of two guilds of frugivores on the fruits of the woolly torch Pilosocereus leucocephalus. We assessed fruit pulp removal in two ways: by estimating the consumption of seeds given the amount of pulp removed per visit and by estimating the percentage of pulp removal over time. We put exclosures on unripe, intact fruits to keep frugivores from removing material. Once ripe, we removed the exclosures and tracked animal visitation of 69 fruits using camera traps. We obtained a total of 2,162 hr of footage (14:47 hours of them with effective pulp removal). The highest number of visitors is that of diurnal species (n = 12, all birds) versus only four nocturnal (three bats, one rodent). The most effective species in pulp removal are birds. Bats play a modest role in frugivory of this cactus. The significance of this work is twofold: (a) birds and bats consume the fruit pulp of this cactus and likely disperse its seeds, and (b) although bats rank high in pulp removal effectiveness, birds as a guild far outweigh their importance in this system, as they are not only more frequent but also remove more pulp and seeds. Both groups are known to be important in cacti seed dispersal, and our findings are essential in understanding the population dynamics of the woolly torch and in elucidating its seed dispersal ecology.