自噬的调控通路和肿瘤

自噬是指胞浆内大分子物质和细胞器在膜包囊泡中大量降解的生物学过程,其具有独特的分子机制、形态改变和特有的调控通路,作为各种调控通路交汇点——mTOR复合体和Beclin1复合体发挥了至关重要的作用。对于人体而言,自噬具有维持细胞自我稳态,促进细胞生存的作用,然而,过度自噬则可以引起细胞死亡即＂自噬性细胞死亡＂。相关研究表明,自噬的这种特点与肿瘤的发生密切相关。对于肿瘤,自噬作用好似一把双刃剑,既促进其发生又抑制其形成。     

mTORC1信号通路调控细胞自噬的研究进展

蛋白激酶mTORC1主要感应细胞内的营养状态和细胞外的压力刺激,通过磷酸化众多下游底物蛋白,参与调控细胞的生长、增殖和代谢等过程.近年来的研究表明, m TORC1信号通路在细胞内的重要分解代谢过程——细胞自噬的调控中发挥主导作用.在细胞自噬过程的不同阶段发挥作用的多个蛋白陆续被鉴定为mTORC1的直接磷酸化底物,表明mTORC1在细胞自噬过程的不同阶段均发挥调控作用.以上作用机制让mTORC1精确而全面地控制细胞自噬的起始、终止和强度,进而帮助细胞更好地应对细胞内外环境的改变.本文将围绕mTORC1信号通路在细胞自噬调控中的主导作用综述近年来的相关研究进展.     

Che-1通过mTOR通路调控自噬在谷氨酸所致神经元损伤中的作用研究

目的:观察谷氨酸(glutamate, Glu)对神经元Che-1蛋白表达的影响,研究过表达Che-1对Glu所致神经元氧化应激性损伤的作用,并以mTOR调控的细胞自噬通路为靶点,探讨Che-1在Glu所致神经元损伤中发挥作用的分子机制。方法:用Glu损伤神经元后,采用免疫学及分子生物学等方法检测Che-1蛋白的表达;用慢病毒转染神经元增加Che-1表达,用乳酸脱氢酶(Lactate dehydrogenase, LDH)释放量和流式细胞术等方法检测神经元凋亡程度,采用免疫荧光染色和免疫印迹法检测神经元自噬关键蛋白表达水平;使用mTOR特异性抑制剂雷帕霉素(Rapamycin)提高神经元自噬水平,并通过检测LDH释放量和流式细胞术研究自噬在神经元转归中的作用。结果:Glu可显著增加神经元Che-1蛋白表达;过表达Che-1可减轻Glu所致神经元损伤,并减轻Glu所致神经元自噬;通过Rapamycin激活自噬可逆转Che-1对Glu所致神经元损伤的保护作用。结论:过表达Che-1蛋白可通过抑制神经元自噬对Glu所致神经元损伤发挥保护作用。     

PINK1/Parkin介导的线粒体自噬

线粒体自噬（mitochondrial autophagy, or mitophagy）指的是细胞通过自吞噬作用,降解与清除受损线粒体或者多余线粒体,其对整个线粒体网络的功能完整性和细胞存活具有重要作用。线粒体自噬过程受多种途径调控,PINK1/Parkin通路是其中的一条,其异常与多种疾病的发生密切相关,如心血管疾病、肿瘤和帕金森病等。在去极化线粒体中,磷酸酶及张力蛋白同源物(PTEN)诱导的激酶1（PTEN-induced kinase 1,PINK1）作为受损线粒体的分子传感器,触发线粒体自噬的起始信号,并将Parkin募集至线粒体;Parkin作为线粒体自噬信号的“增强子”,通过对线粒体蛋白质进一步泛素化介导自噬信号的扩大;去泛素化酶和PTEN-long蛋白参与调控该过程,并对维持线粒体稳态具有重要作用。本文主要对PINK1与Parkin蛋白质的分子结构和其介导线粒体自噬发生的分子机制,以及参与调控该途径的关键蛋白质进行综述,为进一步研究以线粒体自噬缺陷为特征的疾病治疗提供理论基础。     

缺氧通过SIRT1调控结直肠癌细胞自噬

目的:探究缺氧调控结直肠癌细胞自噬的分子机制。方法:分别在常氧及缺氧(1%氧气浓度)条件下处理细胞,western blot检测细胞内沉默信息调节因子1(Silencing Information Regulator 1,SIRT1)及自噬相关标志分子的表达情况;慢病毒转染构建SIRT1稳定过表达或敲减细胞株,利用透射电镜观察细胞内自噬体形成的情况;使用m RFP-GFP-LC3双标腺病毒感染细胞,在激光扫描共聚焦显微镜下观察细胞自噬流的进展。结果:Western blot结果显示,缺氧条件下,HCT116及SW480细胞内SIRT1的表达水平随着缺氧时间的延长而降低,自噬特异性底物p62蛋白水平降低且LC3-I/II转换增加;与对照组相比,SIRT1过表达细胞内自噬特异性底物p62的表达水平升高而LC3-I/II转换受到抑制;相反在SIRT1敲减细胞内,p62的表达水平降低而LC3-I/II转换进一步促进。透射电镜结果发现SIRT1过表达后,细胞内自噬溶酶体形成减少、自噬体数量增多;激光共聚焦结果显示,SIRT1过表达细胞内绿色荧光淬灭减少、自噬体与自噬溶酶体的融合收到明显抑制,说明SIRT1通过抑制自噬溶酶体的形成,阻断自噬流的进展。结论:缺氧通过抑制SIRT1的表达促进结直肠癌的细胞自噬。     

Beclin 1对凋亡和自噬的调控作用

Beclin 1是自噬关键调控蛋白之一,参与自噬体膜形成.近期,大量研究结果指出, Beclin 1是caspase家族蛋白酶的全新底物,可被caspase剪切.剪切后的Beclin 1失去自噬调节功能,转而加剧凋亡进程.因而,Beclin 1对细胞凋亡和自噬起着重要的调控作用. 本文主要对细胞凋亡和自噬的相关性,以及Beclin 1在两通路中的调控作用进行了回顾与总结.在此基础上,进一步讨论了Beclin 1与人类疾病如肿瘤、神经系统退行性疾病的关联.最后,简要介绍了实验室常用于Beclin 1研究的工具.     

脓肿分枝杆菌感染THP-1巨噬细胞自噬相关分子的识别

为了探索THP-1巨噬细胞在脓肿分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium abscessus, MAB)感染后,与自噬相关的关键分子及其介导的生物学过程,从GEO和GeneCards数据库中挖掘MAB感染后THP-1巨噬细胞的自噬相关基因;利用DAVID在线工具对筛选的差异自噬相关基因进行基因本体论(GO)、京都基因和基因组数据库(KEGG)富集分析;采用实时荧光定量PCR (qRT-PCR)方法验证筛选的关键基因;将关键基因与自噬标志分子MAP1LC3A进行Pearson相关性分析。生物信息学分析显示,与自噬密切相关的差异表达基因共11个,其中前5个是BNIP3 (Bcl-2/adenovirus E1 B interacting protein 3)、BAMBI (BMP and activin membrane bound inhibitor)、MAP1LC3A (microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3)、DYSF (Dysferlin)和MYOZ1 (Myozenin1);功能预测显示, 11个差异表达基因主要和自噬等过程相关;...     

ULK1蛋白激酶通过自噬及非自噬途径介导的生理、病理和疾病研究进展

ULK1 (unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1)是一种哺乳动物丝/苏氨酸激酶,其作为自噬起始复合物的关键分子可介导细胞发生经典自噬反应。经典自噬反应是细胞通过由一系列自噬相关蛋白质介导的自噬溶酶体途径,将废弃或受损的蛋白质、细胞器经过自噬体的包裹后与溶酶体结合,继而使蛋白质、细胞器在溶酶体内降解。因此, ULK1介导的经典自噬反应是细胞质量控制的重要组成部分。除了介导经典自噬反应以外,ULK1也发挥着独立于自噬反应之外的重要作用,比如:促进细胞凋亡、强化磷酸戊糖途径、调控固有免疫反应等。此外, ULK1在糖脂代谢、红细胞形成、内质网应激、肿瘤、神经系统疾病中也发挥着重要作用。鉴于ULK1的重要性,本综述围绕ULK1蛋白激酶参与的经典自噬反应和不依赖自噬的反应及其介导的生理、病理和疾病过程展开论述。     

转谷氨酰胺酶2通过mTOR通路和自噬调控全反式维甲酸诱导的白血病细胞HL60和U937的髓系分化

全反式维甲酸(ATRA)是具有融合基因PML-RARα的急性早幼粒细胞白血病(APL)特异的靶向治疗药物。此外,ATRA在无PML-RARα融合的急性髓系白血病及其它一些肿瘤中也有一定治疗效果。但ATRA治疗也会引起一些并发症或发生愈后复发。因此,对ATRA诱导分化调控机制的研究非常重要。转谷氨酰胺酶2(TGM2)是一种多功能酶,能调控mTOR信号通路和自噬等。ATRA能诱导APL细胞中TGM2表达上调,TGM2敲低抑制ATRA诱导的细胞分化。但其调控机制及涉及的信号通路尚不明确。本研究发现,在HL60和U937细胞中,ATRA能够上调CD11b和TGM2的表达(P<0.05),抑制mTOR信号通路,并增强自噬;与对照相比,敲低TGM2,mTOR信号通路增强,自噬被抑制,而ATRA诱导的CD11b表达被抑制(P<0.05),分化减弱,被ATRA抑制的mTOR信号通路得到部分恢复,而被ATRA增强的自噬适当减弱。这表明ATRA使HL60和U937细胞发生髓系分化,并诱导TGM2表达升高;而TGM2通过mTOR信号通路和自噬途径调控ATRA诱导的髓系分化。该研究将有利于更深入地...     

沉默信息调节因子1通过诱导miR-221/222表达促进细胞自噬

微小RNA（microRNAs, miRNAs,）是一类强大的基因表达调控子,可在转录及转录后水平负调控靶基因的表达来参与生物学过程。沉默信息调节因子1 (silent information regulator1, SIRT1)底物众多,可通过去乙酰化作用参与多种细胞生命活动进程。尽管如此,SIRT1与非编码RNA如miRNA的表达调控关系仍有待深入研究。本文利用荧光定量PCR 检测发现,SIRT1与miR-221和miR-222的表达呈正相关：干扰SIRT1后,miR-221/222呈低水平表达;而过表达SIRT1则促进miR-221/222的表达。将miR-221/222基因簇启动子区序列插入pEZX-GA01构建双荧光素酶报告载体,与SIRT1过表达质粒或干扰序列共转至细胞。结果显示,SIRT1可显著提高miR-221/222启动子区活性,提示SIRT1可在转录水平调节miR-221/222的表达。进一步运用Western 印迹研究发现,在HEK293细胞中过表达miR-221/222可促进细胞的自噬能力,而抑制miR-221/222的表达可减弱自噬。此外,过表达SIRT1的同时抑制miR-221/222 的表达可减弱SIRT1的自噬诱导作用。综上所述,SIRT1可通过诱导miR-221/222的表达促进细胞自噬,其具体作用机制有待进一步探讨。     

氧化应激对Hsp90α、ARF1 细胞内定位和相互作用的影响

目的:探讨氧化应激对热休克蛋白90α(Hsp90α)与ADP-核糖基化因子1(ARF1)细胞内定位、相互作用的影响。方法:应用500μM H2O2处理HepG2细胞,建立氧化应激模型,MTT比色法检测细胞活力,Western blotting检测Hsp90α和ARF1水平,细胞免疫荧光法、免疫共沉淀检测上述蛋白在氧化应激下的分布、共定位变化和相互作用。结果:MTT比色法结果提示,随氧化应激时间延长,细胞存活力降低;Western blotting结果显示,氧化应激可提高胞内Hsp90α和ARF1蛋白水平;免疫共沉淀结果显示,随氧化应激作用时间延长,Hsp90α与ARF1相互结合增多;细胞免疫荧光结果显示,随氧化应激作用时间延长,Hsp90α与ARF1荧光强度增强,并趋于沿胞膜分布。结论:提示氧化应激影响Hsp90α和ARF1的水平、胞内分布及相互作用。     

Rac1 and calmodulin interactions modulate dynamics of ARF6-dependent endocytosis

The main cellular Ca(2+) sensor, calmodulin (CaM), interacts with and regulates several small GTPases, including Rac1. The present study revealed high binding affinity of Rac1 for CaM and uncovered two new essential binding domains in Rac1: the polybasic region, important for phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP5K) interaction, and the adjacent prenyl group. CaM inhibition increased Rac1 binding to PIP5K and induced an extensive phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI4,5P(2) )-positive tubular membrane network. Immunofluorescence demonstrated that the tubules were plasma membrane invaginations resulting from an ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6)-dependent and clathrin-independent pathway. The role of Rac1 in this endocytic route was analyzed by expressing constitutively active and inactive mutants. While active Rac1 impaired tubulation, the inactive mutant enhanced it. Intriguingly, inactive mutant expression elicited tubulation by recruiting PIP5K and inhibiting Rac1 at the plasma membrane. Accordingly, CaM inhibition inactivated Rac1 and increased Rac1/PIP5K interaction. Therefore, our findings highlight an important new role for Rac1 and CaM in controlling clathrin-independent endocytosis.     

Orexin/Hypocretin Activates mTOR Complex 1 (mTORC1) via an Erk/Akt-independent and Calcium-stimulated Lysosome v-ATPase Pathway

The lack of the neuropeptide orexin, also known as hypocretin, results in narcolepsy, a chronic sleep disorder characterized by frequent sleep/cataplexy attacks and rapid eye movement sleep abnormalities. However, the downstream pathways of orexin signaling are not clearly understood. Here, we show that orexin activates the mTOR pathway, a central regulator of cell growth and metabolism, in the mouse brain and multiple recombinant cell lines that express the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), orexin 1 receptor (OX1R) or orexin 2 receptor (OX2R). This orexin/GPCR-stimulated mTOR activation is sensitive to rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) but is independent of two well known mTORC1 activators, Erk and Akt. Rather, our studies indicate that orexin activates mTORC1 via extracellular calcium influx and the lysosome pathway involving v-ATPase and Rag GTPases. Moreover, a cytoplasmic calcium transient is sufficient to mimic orexin/GPCR signaling to mTORC1 activation in a v-ATPase-dependent manner. Together, our studies suggest that the mTORC1 pathway functions downstream of orexin/GPCR signaling, which plays a crucial role in many physiological and metabolic processes.     

Control of B lymphocyte development and functions by the mTOR signaling pathways

Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a serine/threonine kinase originally discovered as the molecular target of the immunosuppressant rapamycin. mTOR forms two compositionally and functionally distinct complexes, mTORC1 and mTORC2, which are crucial for coordinating nutrient, energy, oxygen, and growth factor availability with cellular growth, proliferation, and survival. Recent studies have identified critical, non-redundant roles for mTORC1 and mTORC2 in controlling B cell development, differentiation, and functions, and have highlighted emerging roles of the Folliculin-Fnip protein complex in regulating mTOR and B cell development. In this review, we summarize the basic mechanisms of mTOR signaling; describe what is known about the roles of mTORC1, mTORC2, and the Folliculin/Fnip1 pathway in B cell development and functions; and briefly outline current clinical approaches for targeting mTOR in B cell neoplasms. We conclude by highlighting a few salient questions and future perspectives regarding mTOR in B lineage cells.     

Interaction of p14ARF with Brca1 in cancer cell lines and primary breast cancer

We report an association between p14ARF and Brca1 in which both proteins co-immunoprecipitate (co-IP) in DU145 cells. The N-terminal 64 residues of p14ARF encoded by exon 1beta are sufficient for this association. Inside the cell, ectopic p14ARF co-localizes with ectopic and endogenous Brca1 in A375 cells. Endogenous p14ARF co-localizes with endogenous Brca1 in DU145 cells but not in H1299 cells. Since p14ARF interacts with B23 in the nucleolus, Brca1 co-localizes with B23 in DU145 but not in H1299 cells. While ectopic ARF potently inhibited DU145 cell proliferation, it had no effect on the proliferation of H1299 cells, suggesting that the interaction between ARF and Brca1 contributes to ARF-mediated tumor suppression. Consistent with this notion, ectopic p14ARF modulates endogenous Brca1 expression in MCF7 breast cancer cells and p14ARF co-localizes with Brca1 in normal breast epithelial cells. This co-localization is enhanced in primary breast cancer. Taken together, the results show that p14ARF associates with Brca1, which may play a major role in tumor suppression.     

The role of ARF1 and rab GTPases in polarization of the Golgi stack

The organization and sorting of proteins within the Golgi stack to establish and maintain its cis to trans polarization remains an enigma. The function of Golgi compartments involves coat assemblages that facilitate vesicle traffic, Rab-tether-SNAP receptor (SNARE) machineries that dictate membrane identity, as well as matrix components that maintain structure. We have investigated how the Golgi complex achieves compartmentalization in response to a key component of the coat complex I (COPI) coat assembly pathway, the ARF1 GTPase, in relationship to GTPases-regulating endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit (Sar1) and targeting fusion (Rab1). Following collapse of the Golgi into the ER in response to inhibition of activation of ARF1 by Brefeldin A, we found that Sar1- and Rab1-dependent Golgi reformation took place at multiple peripheral and perinuclear ER exit sites. These rapidly converged into immature Golgi that appeared as onion-like structures composed of multiple concentrically arrayed cisternae of mixed enzyme composition. During clustering to the perinuclear region, Golgi enzymes were sorted to achieve the degree of polarization within the stack found in mature Golgi. Surprisingly, we found that sorting of Golgi enzymes into their subcompartments was insensitive to the dominant negative GTP-restricted ARF1 mutant, a potent inhibitor of COPI coat disassembly and vesicular traffic. We suggest that a COPI-independent, Rab-dependent mechanism is involved in the rapid reorganization of resident enzymes within the Golgi stack following synchronized release from the ER, suggesting an important role for Rab hubs in directing Golgi polarization.