Cholera Toxins: Purification and Preliminary Characterization of Ileal Loop Reactive Type 2 Toxin

Details for the preparation and partial purification of culture supernatant fluids of Vibrio cholerae (V. comma) 569B which retain rabbit ileal loop fluid-accumulating activity are presented. These preparations were fractionated on Sephadex G-200 and on diethylaminoethyl-Sephadex. On the latter, two fractions were obtained by elution with a linear sodium chloride gradient. The fraction designated "fraction I" retains the toxic activity as demonstrated in the rabbit ileal loop model. Chemical and immunological properties of this active fraction are described.     

Inhibition of Cholera Toxin and Other AB Toxins by Polyphenolic Compounds

Cholera toxin (CT) is an AB-type protein toxin that contains a catalytic A1 subunit, an A2 linker, and a cell-binding B homopentamer. The CT holotoxin is released into the extracellular environment, but CTA1 attacks a target within the cytosol of a host cell. We recently reported that grape extract confers substantial resistance to CT. Here, we used a cell culture system to identify twelve individual phenolic compounds from grape extract that inhibit CT. Additional studies determined the mechanism of inhibition for a subset of the compounds: two inhibited CT binding to the cell surface and even stripped CT from the plasma membrane of a target cell; two inhibited the enzymatic activity of CTA1; and four blocked cytosolic toxin activity without directly affecting the enzymatic function of CTA1. Individual polyphenolic compounds from grape extract could also generate cellular resistance to diphtheria toxin, exotoxin A, and ricin. We have thus identified individual toxin inhibitors from grape extract and some of their mechanisms of inhibition against CT.     

Rabbit Ileal Loop Response to Strains of Clostridium perfringens

The ligated loop of the rabbit intestine was investigated as a possible experimental model for the study of Clostridium perfringens food poisoning. The method of preparation of the challenge inoculum was important in determining whether a given strain would provoke a response. When cultures were grown for 4 hr at 37 C in Skim Milk (Difco), 14 of 29 type A strains isolated from food-poisoning outbreaks consistently produced exudation of fluid and consequent dilation of the ileal segments. In contrast, 15 of the 18 strains derived from other sources failed to elicit a response. By use of different inoculum preparations, nearly all strains could be made to give at least an occasional positive loop reaction. Diarrhea was not obtained in rabbits by intraluminal injection into the normal ileum or by per os administration of the cultures. Lecithinase, purified and in concentrated culture supernatant fractions, failed to produce a response in the isolated ileal loops.     

Active and Passive Immunization in the Adult Rabbit Ileal Loop Model as an Assay for Production of Antitoxin Immunity by Cholera Vaccines

Three field trial cholera vaccines did not induce antitoxic immunity. A choleragenic toxin induced high-serum neutralizing antibody, but protection to loop challenge with toxin was minimal.     

Reaction of Vibrio cholerae and Choleragenic Toxin in Ileal Loop of Laboratory Animals

Accumulation of fluid in the ligated ileal loop upon injection of cholera vibrios or choleragenic toxin seems to be a generalized phenomenon in laboratory animals.     

纯化重组霍乱毒素B亚单位与天然霍乱毒素B亚单位性质的对比研究

霍乱毒素Ｂ亚单位（ＢＳ）已用于新型口服霍乱疫苗、佐剂及蛋白质载体,但成本高,来源困难．用重组霍乱毒素Ｂ亚单位（ｒＢＳ）代替ＢＳ可克服上述缺点．ｒＢＳ用于上述目的前必须证实其在物理、化学及免疫学性质方面与天然同类产品的一致性．用亲和层析法从各批次大罐发酵所获工程菌Ｅ．ｃｏｌｉＭＭ２（ｐＭＭ－ＣＴＢ）培养物上清中制备得到了小批量ｒＢＳ纯品,在同等条件下与ＢＳ（Ｓｉｇ－ｍａ公司产品）进行理化、免疫学性质的对比研究,证实二者在ＳＤＳ－ＰＡＧＥ中电泳带位置一致、分子量相同,纯度达９９％;在反相ＨＰＬＣ中出峰行为一致,纯度达１００％;在半干式聚焦电泳分析中电泳带分布相同,等电点为７．９１．ｒＢＳＮ端起的２０个氨基酸序列为ＴＰＱＮＩＴＤＬＣＡＥＹＨＮＴＱＩＨＴＬ,与克隆基因来源株的毒素Ｂ亚单位同一段序列完全一致．氨基酸组成分析证实ｒＢＳ与ＢＳ相近．在免疫学性质分析中,ｒＢＳ与ＢＳ在免疫双扩散试验中与抗ＣＴ均出一条沉淀线且相互吻合;在免疫电泳试验中二者与抗ＣＴ在相应位置上产生一条沉淀弧;二者均能与神经节苷脂ＧＭ１结合且这种结合均可通过二者与抗ＣＴ的预保温处理而被阻断．对比研究结果揭示ｒＢＳ与ＢＳ性质完全一致,可代替ＢＳ用于     

Filipin-dependent Inhibition of Cholera Toxin: Evidence for Toxin Internalization and Activation through Caveolae-like Domains

The mechanism by which cholera toxin (CT) is internalized from the plasma membrane before its intracellular reduction and subsequent activation of adenylyl cyclase is not well understood. Ganglioside G_M1, the receptor for CT, is predominantly clustered in detergent-insoluble glycolipid rafts and in caveolae, noncoated, cholesterol-rich invaginations on the plasma membrane. In this study, we used filipin, a sterol-binding agent that disrupts caveolae and caveolae-like structures, to explore their role in the internalization and activation of CT in CaCo-2 human intestinal epithelial cells. When toxin internalization was quantified, only 33% of surface-bound toxin was internalized by filipin-treated cells within 1 h compared with 79% in untreated cells. However, CT activation as determined by its reduction to form the A₁ peptide and CT activity as measured by cyclic AMP accumulation were inhibited in filipin-treated cells. Another sterol-binding agent, 2-hydroxy-β-cyclodextrin, gave comparable results. The cationic amphiphilic drug chlorpromazine, an inhibitor of clathrin-dependent, receptor-mediated endocytosis, however, affected neither CT internalization, activation, nor activity in contrast to its inhibitory effects on diphtheria toxin cytotoxicity. As filipin did not inhibit the latter, the two drugs appeared to distinguish between caveolae- and coated pit–mediated processes. In addition to its effects in CaCo-2 cells that express low levels of caveolin, filipin also inhibited CT activity in human epidermoid carcinoma A431 and Jurkat T lymphoma cells that are, respectively, rich in or lack caveolin. Thus, filipin inhibition correlated more closely with alterations in the biochemical characteristics of CT-bound membranes due to the interactions of filipin with cholesterol rather than with the expressed levels of caveolin and caveolar structure. Our results indicated that the internalization and activation of CT was dependent on and mediated through cholesterol- and glycolipid-rich microdomains at the plasma membrane rather than through a specific morphological structure and that these glycolipid microdomains have the necessary components required to mediate endocytosis.     

霍乱毒素B亚基基因具有自己的启动子

本研究发现并证实霍乱毒素B亚基基因上游Xba Ⅰ～Cla Ⅰ限制性片段内存在具有启动子活性的序列;在该启动子作用下,霍乱毒素B亚基表达水平可达200mg/L,氯霉素乙酰基转移酶基因表达水平随培养条件不同在0.3～10mg/L之间,大肠杆菌β-半乳糖苷酶基因的表达量达4100U/ml。在该启动子的控制下霍乱毒素B亚基基因可以高效表达,该启动子的存在可能是由于霍乱毒素操纵子中霍乱毒素B亚基表达量是A亚基的6倍。     

霍乱毒素B亚基基因具有自己的启动子

本研究发现并证实霍乱毒素Ｂ亚基基因上游ＸｂａＩ～ＣｌａＩ限制性片段内存在具有启动子活性的序列;在该启动子作用下,霍乱毒素Ｂ亚基表达水平可达２００ｍｇ／Ｌ,氯霉素乙酰基转移酶基因表达水平随培养条件不同在０．３～１０ｍｇ／Ｌ之间,大肠杆菌β－半乳糖苷酶基因的表达量达４１００单位／ｍｌ。在该启动子的控制下霍乱毒素Ｂ亚基基因可以高效表达,该启动子的存在可能是霍乱毒素操纵子中霍乱毒素Ｂ亚基表达量是Ａ亚基的６倍的原因。     

Immunity to Cholera: Relation of Fraction II of Type 2 Cholera Toxin to Vibriocidal Antibody

The nontoxic protein component in supernatant fluids of young cultures of the cholera vibrio in peptone dialysate broth contains an antigen identical in specificity to vibrio lipopolysaccharide. This material was heterogeneous after elution from diethylaminoethyl A50 Sephadex, and it contained at least five additional minor antigens. Identity was demonstrated by immunodiffusion methods, by the induction of specific vibriocidal antibody formation, and by specific interference in the vibriocidal reaction. The minor antigens appeared to be unrelated to the vibriocidal reaction. The major antigen was more highly immunogenic than lipopolysaccharide, giving higher and longer-persisting antibody titers in the rabbit, but lipopolysaccharide was the more effective interfering antigen per unit weight in the vibriocidal reaction. The nontoxicity and high immunogenic potency of the protein antigen suggest that it may be useful as an immunizing agent for the production of the antibacterial component of an effective immunity.     

Clostridium perfringens Delta Toxin Is Sequence Related to Beta Toxin,NetB, and Staphylococcus Pore-Forming Toxins,but Shows Functional Differences

Clostridium perfringens produces numerous toxins, which are responsible for severe diseases in man and animals. Delta toxin is one of the three hemolysins released by a number of C. perfringens type C and possibly type B strains. Delta toxin was characterized to be cytotoxic for cells expressing the ganglioside G_M2 in their membrane. Here we report the genetic characterization of Delta toxin and its pore forming activity in lipid bilayers. Delta toxin consists of 318 amino acids, its 28 N-terminal amino acids corresponding to a signal peptide. The secreted Delta toxin (290 amino acids; 32619 Da) is a basic protein (pI 9.1) which shows a significant homology with C. perfringens Beta toxin (43% identity), with C. perfringens NetB (40% identity) and, to a lesser extent, with Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin and leukotoxins. Recombinant Delta toxin showed a preference for binding to G_M2, in contrast to Beta toxin, which did not bind to gangliosides. It is hemolytic for sheep red blood cells and cytotoxic for HeLa cells. In artificial diphytanoyl phosphatidylcholine membranes, Delta and Beta toxin formed channels. Conductance of the channels formed by Delta toxin, with a value of about 100 pS to more than 1 nS in 1 M KCl and a membrane potential of 20 mV, was higher than those formed by Beta toxin and their distribution was broader. The results of zero-current membrane potential measurements and single channel experiments suggest that Delta toxin forms slightly anion-selective channels, whereas the Beta toxin channels showed a preference for cations under the same conditions. C. perfringens Delta toxin shows a significant sequence homolgy with C. perfringens Beta and NetB toxins, as well as with S. aureus alpha hemolysin and leukotoxins, but exhibits different channel properties in lipid bilayers. In contrast to Beta toxin, Delta toxin recognizes G_M2 as receptor and forms anion-selective channels.     

Stabilization of the Tertiary Structure of the Cholera Toxin A1 Subunit Inhibits Toxin Dislocation and Cellular Intoxication

Cholera toxin (CT) moves from the cell surface to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by retrograde vesicular transport. The catalytic subunit of CT (CTA1) then crosses the ER membrane and enters the cytosol in a process that involves the quality control mechanism of ER-associated degradation. The molecular details of this dislocation event have not been fully characterized. Here, we report that thermal instability in the CTA1 subunit—specifically, the loss of CTA1 tertiary structure at 37 °C—triggers toxin dislocation. Biophysical studies found that glycerol preferentially stabilized the tertiary structure of CTA1 without having any noticeable effect on the thermal stability of its secondary structure. The thermal disordering of CTA1 tertiary structure normally preceded the perturbation of its secondary structure, but in the presence of 10% glycerol the temperature-induced loss of CTA1 tertiary structure occurred at higher temperatures in tandem with the loss of CTA1 secondary structure. The glycerol-induced stabilization of CTA1 tertiary structure blocked CTA1 dislocation from the ER and instead promoted CTA1 secretion into the extracellular medium. This, in turn, inhibited CT intoxication. Glycerol treatment also inhibited the in vitro degradation of CTA1 by the core 20S proteasome. Collectively, these findings indicate that toxin thermal instability plays a key role in the intoxication process. They also suggest the stabilization of CTA1 tertiary structure is a potential goal for novel antitoxin therapeutic agents.     

Immunization with Cholera Toxin B Subunit Induces High-Level Protection in the Suckling Mouse Model of Cholera

Cholera toxin (CT) is the primary virulence factor responsible for severe cholera. Vibrio cholerae strains unable to produce CT show severe attenuation of virulence in animals and humans. The pentameric B subunit of CT (CTB) contains the immunodominant epitopes recognized by antibodies that neutralize CT. Although CTB is a potent immunogen and a promising protective vaccine antigen in animal models, immunization of humans with detoxified CT failed to protect against cholera. We recently demonstrated however that pups reared from mice immunized intraperitoneally (IP) with 3 doses of recombinant CTB were well protected against a highly lethal challenge dose of V. cholerae N16961. The present study investigated how the route and number of immunizations with CTB could influence protective efficacy in the suckling mouse model of cholera. To this end female mice were immunized with CTB intranasally (IN), IP, and subcutaneously (SC). Serum and fecal extracts were analyzed for anti-CTB antibodies by quantitative ELISA, and pups born to immunized mothers were challenged orogastrically with a lethal dose of V. cholerae. Pups from all immunized groups were highly protected from death by 48 hours (64–100% survival). Cox regression showed that percent body weight loss at 24 hours predicted death by 48 hours, but we were unable to validate a specific amount of weight loss as a surrogate marker for protection. Although CTB was highly protective in all regimens, three parenteral immunizations showed trends toward higher survival and less weight loss at 24 hours post infection. These results demonstrate that immunization with CTB by any of several routes and dosing regimens can provide protection against live V. cholerae challenge in the suckling mouse model of cholera. Our data extend the results of previous studies and provide additional support for the inclusion of CTB in the development of a subunit vaccine against V. cholerae.     

霍乱毒素B亚单位在疫苗研究中的应用

CTB不同于CT,没有毒性,在体内和体外CTB具有强的免疫调节活性。越来越多的证据表明CTB在疫苗研究中发挥重要作用。深入理解CTB的免疫调节机制及其在疫苗研究中的应用,有助于设计新疫苗和改良疫苗。因此,将对CTB在疫苗研究中的应用进展进行综述。     

霍乱毒素B亚基融合蛋白表达系统的构建

霍乱毒素Ｂ亚基（ＣＴＢ）是良好的免疫佐剂和载体蛋白。本研究通过定点突变,在ＣＴＢ基因（ｃｔｘＢ）３′端终止密码前引入了限制性内切酶ＥｃｏＲＩ,构建了质粒ｐＭＣ０５。ｐＭＣ０５中ＣＴＢ与下游ｌａｃＺ′基因阅读框架相同,转化大肠杆菌后能够表达ＣＴＢ与β－半乳糖苷酶α肽的融合蛋白;所表达的融合蛋白能与ＧＭ１结合,说明融合蛋白保持ＣＴＢ的基本高级结构和生物学活性;融合蛋白能与抗－ＣＴＢ抗体结合,说明融合蛋白具有ＣＴＢ的抗原性。以上结果表明：通过将外源抗原决定簇基因融合至ｃｔｘＢ的３′端,在大肠杆菌中表达融合蛋白,构建基因工程肽苗是可行的。还探索了转录终止序列对融合基因蛋白表达水平的影响,构建了高效表达融合蛋白的载体－宿主系统。     

Targeted Silencing of Anthrax Toxin Receptors Protects against Anthrax Toxins

Anthrax spores can be aerosolized and dispersed as a bioweapon. Current postexposure treatments are inadequate at later stages of infection, when high levels of anthrax toxins are present. Anthrax toxins enter cells via two identified anthrax toxin receptors: tumor endothelial marker 8 (TEM8) and capillary morphogenesis protein 2 (CMG2). We hypothesized that host cells would be protected from anthrax toxins if anthrax toxin receptor expression was effectively silenced using RNA interference (RNAi) technology. Thus, anthrax toxin receptors in mouse and human macrophages were silenced using targeted siRNAs or blocked with specific antibody prior to challenge with anthrax lethal toxin. Viability assays were used to assess protection in macrophages treated with specific siRNA or antibody as compared with untreated cells. Silencing CMG2 using targeted siRNAs provided almost complete protection against anthrax lethal toxin-induced cytotoxicity and death in murine and human macrophages. The same results were obtained by prebinding cells with specific antibody prior to treatment with anthrax lethal toxin. In addition, TEM8-targeted siRNAs also offered significant protection against lethal toxin in human macrophage-like cells. Furthermore, silencing CMG2, TEM8, or both receptors in combination was also protective against MEK2 cleavage by lethal toxin or adenylyl cyclase activity by edema toxin in human kidney cells. Thus, anthrax toxin receptor-targeted RNAi has the potential to be developed as a life-saving, postexposure therapy against anthrax.