Influence of soil type on the transfer of plasmid RP4p from Pseudomonas fluorescens to introduced recipient and to indigenous bacteria

Abstract Transfer of plasmid RP4p from introduced Pseudomonas fluorescens to a co-introduced recipient strain or to members of the indigenous bacterial population was studied in four different soils of varying texture planted with wheat. Donor and recipient strains showed good survival in the four soils throughout the experiment. The numbers of transconjugants found in donor and recipient experiments in two soils, Ede loamy sand and Löss silt loam were significantly higher in the rhizosphere than in corresponding bulk soil. In the remaining two soils, Montrond and Flevo silt loam, transconjugant numbers were not significantly higher in the rhizosphere than in the bulk soil.
The combined utilization of a specific bacteriophage eliminate the donor strain and the pat sequence as a specific marker to detect RP4p was found to be very efficient in detecting indigenous transconjugants under various environmental conditions. The numbers of indigenous transconjugants were consistently higher in rhizosphere than bull soil. A significant rhizosphere effect on transconjugant numbers of transconjugants were recovered from Flevo and Montrond silt loam; these soils possess characteristics such as clay or organic matter contents which may be favorable to conjugation.     

Detection of plasmid RP4 transfer in soil and rhizosphere,and the occurrence of homology to RP4 in soil bacteria

Plasmid RP4 transfer between introduced pseudomonads was studied in non-rhizosphere and rhizosphere soil. The addition of nutrients to the non-rhizosphere soil stimulated plasmid transfers between introduced donor and recipient cells, and no transfer was detected in nonamended soil. Transfer was also detected in soil in a model rhizosphere, but not in corresponding non-rhizosphere soil. Colony hybridization with whole plasmid RP4 DNA as a probe was employed to detect transfers to indigenous organisms in soil. Although transfers to introduced recipient cells were easily detected in parallel controls, no indigenous organisms were identified that had received RP4. Background levels of soil organisms with the RP4 resistance pattern were considerable, and about 10% of these populations contained DNA sequences with homology to RP4. However, no plasmids could be detected in any of 20 isolates, nor was resistance transfer to aPseudomonas fluorescens recipient detected in filter matings.     

Transfer of plasmid RP4 in the spermosphere and rhizosphere of barley seedling

Transfer of plasmid RP4 to indigenous bacteria in bulk soil could only be detected in soil with nutrient amendment. Lack of physiological active donor and recipient cells was apparently one of the limiting factors in un-amended bulk soil. Plasmid transfer was detected both in the spermosphere and rhizosphere of barley seedlings. Transfer occured from seed coated donor bacteria (i) to introduced recipient bacteria and (ii) to indigenous bacteria present in soil. Plasmid transfer was also detected from donor bacteria introduced to the soil to seed coated recipient bacteria. Transfer efficiencies in the rhizosphere were significantly below the transfer efficiencies obtained in the spermosphere. The transfer efficiencies detected in the barley spermosphere were among the highest reported from any natural environment.     

Bacterial conjugation between pseudomonads in the rhizosphere of wheat

Abstract Transfer of plasmid RP4 between introduced pseudomonads was studied in rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soil of wheat, in soil chambers and in culture tubes. In both experiments, the presence of growing wheat roots stimulated the occurrence of plasmid transfers in the soil. The plasmid transfer frequencies in rhizosphere soil in the soil chambers were consistently higher than those in rhizosphere soil in the culture tubes, indicating an influence of the experimental set-up.
In the soil chambers, both the survival of introduced donor and recipient strains and the plasmid transfer frequencies decreased drastically at increasing distances from the roots. In addition, plasmid transfer frequencies were influenced by the inoculum densities of both donor and recipient strains; higher frequencies were observed in soil that was initially inoculated with higher cell numbers.     

Frequency of horizontal gene transfer of a large catabolic plasmid (pJP4) in soil.

Limited work has been done to assess the bioremediation potential of transfer of plasmid-borne degradative genes from introduced to indigenous organisms in the environment. Here we demonstrate the transfer by conjugation of the catabolic plasmid pJP4, using a model system with donor and recipient organisms. The donor organism was Alcaligenes eutrophus JMP134 and the recipient organism was Variovorax paradoxus isolated from a toxic waste site. Plasmid pJP4 contains genes for mercury resistance and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic (2,4-D) acid degradation. A transfer frequency of approximately 1/10(3) donor and recipient cells (parent cells) was observed on solid agar media, decreasing to 1/10(5) parent cells in sterile soil and finally 1/10(6) parent cells in 2,4-D-amended, nonsterile soil. Presumptive transconjugants were confirmed to be resistant to Hg, to be capable of degrading 2,4-D, and to contain a plasmid of size comparable to that of pJP4. In addition, we confirmed the transfer through PCR amplifications of the tfdB gene. Although transfer of pJP4 did occur at a high frequency in pure culture, the rate was significantly decreased by the introduction of abiotic (sterile soil) and biotic (nonsterile soil) stresses. An evaluation of the data from this model system implies that the reliance on plasmid transfer from a donor organism as a remediative strategy has limited potential.     

Manure and sulfadiazine synergistically increased bacterial antibiotic resistance in soil over at least two months

Manuring of arable soils may stimulate the spread of resistance genes by introduction of resistant populations and antibiotics. We investigated effects of pig manure and sulfadiazine (SDZ) on bacterial communities in soil microcosms. A silt loam and a loamy sand were mixed with manure containing SDZ (10 or 100 mg per kilogram of soil), and compared with untreated soil and manured soil without SDZ over a 2-month period. In both soils, manure and SDZ positively affected the quotients of total and SDZ-resistant culturable bacteria [most probable number (MPN)], and transfer frequencies of plasmids conferring SDZ resistance in filter matings of soil bacteria and an Escherichia coli recipient. Detection of sulfonamide resistance genes sul1, sul2 and sul3 in community DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and hybridization revealed a high prevalence of sul1 in manure and manured soils, while sul2 was mainly found in the loamy sand treated with manure and high SDZ amounts, and sul3 was not detected. By PCR quantification of sul1 and bacterial rrn genes, a transient effect of manure alone and a long-term effect of SDZ plus manure on absolute and relative sul1 abundance in soil was shown. The dynamics in soil of class 1 integrons, which are typically associated with sul1, was analysed by amplification of the gene cassette region. Integrons introduced by manure established in both soils. Soil type and SDZ affected the composition of integrons. The synergistic effects of manure and SDZ were still detectable after 2 months. The results suggest that manure from treated pigs enhances spread of antibiotic resistances in soil bacterial communities.     

Effects of antibiotics in soil on the population dynamics of transposon Tn5 carrying Pseudomonas fluorescens

The effects of kanamycin and streptomycin added to soil on the survival of transposon Tn5 modified Pseudomonas fluorescens strain R2f were investigated. Kanamycin in high (180 g g^-1 dry soil) or low (18 g g^-1) concentration or streptomycin in low concentration in Ede loamy sand soil had no noticeable effect on inoculant population dynamics in soil and wheat rhizosphere, whereas streptomycin in high concentration had a consistent significant stimulatory effect, in particular in the wheat rhizosphere. Streptomycin exerted its effect by selecting P. fluorescens with Tn5 insertion whilst suppressing the unmodified sensitive parent strain, as evidenced by comparing the behaviour of these two strains in separate and mixed inoculation studies.Soil textural type influenced the effect of streptomycin on the Tn5 carrying inoculant; the effect was consistently detected in rhizosphere and rhizoplane samples of wheat grown in Ede loamy sand after 7 and 14 days incubation, whereas it was only apparent after 7 days in rhizoplane or rhizosphere (and bulk soil) samples of wheat grown in two silt loam soils. Modification of soil pH by the addition of CaCO₃ or bentonite clay resulted in an enhancement of the selective effect of streptomycin by CaCO₃ and its abolishment by bentonite clay.The addition to soil of malic acid or wheat root exudate, but not of glucose, enhanced the streptomycin selective effect on the Tn5-modified P. fluorescens strain. Neither the streptomycin producer Streptomyces griseus nor two non-inhibiting mutants obtained following UV irradiation affected the dynamics of P. fluorescens (chr::Tn5) in soil and wheat rhizosphere.The effect of streptomycin in soil on inoculant Tn5 carrying bacteria depends on conditions such as soil type, the presence of (wheat) root exudates and the type of available substrate.     

Predictive model of conjugative plasmid transfer in the rhizosphere and phyllosphere

A computer simulation model was used to predict the dynamics of survival and conjugation of Pseudomonas cepacia (carrying the transmissible recombinant plasmid R388:Tn1721) with a nonrecombinant recipient strain in simple rhizosphere and phyllosphere microcosms. Plasmid transfer rates were derived for a mass action model, and donor and recipient survival were modeled as exponential growth and decay processes or both. Rate parameters were derived from laboratory studies in which donor and recipient strains were incubated in test tubes with a peat-vermiculite solution or on excised radish or bean leaves in petri dishes. The model predicted donor, recipient, and transconjugant populations in hourly time steps. It was tested in a microcosm planted with radish seeds and inoculated with donor and recipient strains and on leaf surfaces of radish and bean plants also growing in microcosms. Bacteria were periodically enumerated on selective media over 7 to 14 days. When donor and recipient populations were 10(6) to 10(8) CFU/g (wet weight) of plant or soil, transconjugant populations of about 10(1) to 10(4) were observed after 1 day. An initial rapid increase and a subsequent decline in numbers of transconjugants in the rhizosphere and on leaf surfaces were correctly predicted.     

Association of the Plant-beneficial Fungus Verticillium lecanii with Soybean Roots and Rhizosphere

Colonization of soybean roots by the biocontrol fungus Verticillium lecanii was studied in vitro and in situ. For in vitro experiments, V. lecanii was applied to soybean root tip explant cultures. Four weeks after inoculation, the fungus grew externally on at least half of the roots (all treatments combined), colonizing 31% to 71% of root length (treatment means). However, when a potato dextrose agar plug was available as a nutrient source for the fungus, root tips inoculated soon after transfer were not colonized by V. lecanii unless Heterodera glycines was present. Scanning electron microscopy of colonized roots from in vitro cultures revealed a close fungus-root association, including fungal penetration of root cells in some specimens. In the greenhouse, soybeans in sandy soil and in loamy sand soil were treated with V. lecanii applied in alginate prills. The fungus was detected at greater depths from the sandy soil than from the loamy sand soil treatment, but fungus population numbers were small and variable in both soils. Root box studies coupled with image processing analysis of the spatial distribution of V. lecanii in sandy soil supported these findings. Verticillium lecanii was detected randomly in the rhizosphere and soil of root boxes, and was rarely extensively distributed. These in vitro and in situ experiments indicate that V. lecanii can grow in association with soybean roots but is a poor colonizer of soybean rhizosphere in the soil environment.     

Predictive model of conjugative plasmid transfer in the rhizosphere and phyllosphere.

A computer simulation model was used to predict the dynamics of survival and conjugation of Pseudomonas cepacia (carrying the transmissible recombinant plasmid R388:Tn1721) with a nonrecombinant recipient strain in simple rhizosphere and phyllosphere microcosms. Plasmid transfer rates were derived for a mass action model, and donor and recipient survival were modeled as exponential growth and decay processes or both. Rate parameters were derived from laboratory studies in which donor and recipient strains were incubated in test tubes with a peat-vermiculite solution or on excised radish or bean leaves in petri dishes. The model predicted donor, recipient, and transconjugant populations in hourly time steps. It was tested in a microcosm planted with radish seeds and inoculated with donor and recipient strains and on leaf surfaces of radish and bean plants also growing in microcosms. Bacteria were periodically enumerated on selective media over 7 to 14 days. When donor and recipient populations were 10(6) to 10(8) CFU/g (wet weight) of plant or soil, transconjugant populations of about 10(1) to 10(4) were observed after 1 day. An initial rapid increase and a subsequent decline in numbers of transconjugants in the rhizosphere and on leaf surfaces were correctly predicted.     

Plasmid transfer between the Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies kurstaki and tenebrionis in laboratory culture and soil and in lepidopteran and coleopteran larvae

Plasmid transfer between Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki HD1 and B. thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis donor strains and a streptomycin-resistant B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki recipient was studied under environmentally relevant laboratory conditions in vitro, in soil, and in insects. Plasmid transfer was detected in vitro at temperatures of 5 to 37 degrees C, at pH 5.9 to 9.0, and at water activities of 0.965 to 0.995, and the highest transfer ratios (up to 10(-1) transconjugant/donor) were detected within 4 h. In contrast, no plasmid transfer was detected in nonsterile soil, and rapid formation of spores by the introduced strains probably contributed most to the lack of plasmid transfer observed. When a B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki strain was used as the donor strain, plasmid transfer was detected in killed susceptible lepidopteran insect (Lacanobia oleracea) larvae but not in the nonsusceptible coleopteran insect Phaedon chocleriae. When a B. thuringiensis subsp. tenerbrionis strain was used as the donor strain, no plasmid transfer was detected in either of these insects even when they were killed. These results show that in larger susceptible lepidopteran insects there is a greater opportunity for growth of B. thuringiensis strains, and this finding, combined with decreased competition due to a low initial background bacterial population, can provide suitable conditions for efficient plasmid transfer in the environment.     

Plasmid transfer in natural soil: a case by case study with nitrogen-fixing Enterobacter

Abstract In strains of nitrogen-fixing Enterobacter agglomerans , isolated from the rhizosphere of cereals, the nif genes are located on large plasmids. Plasmid pEA9 (200 kb) is self-transmissible between closely related strains. To collect data on possible uncontrolled gene spread, for planned releases of such bacteria, plasmid pEA9 was labelled with transposons (Tn 1725 and Tn 5 ) and used in mating experiments between homologous Enterobacter strains with soil as substrate. The soil was from a plot into which an actual release was being planned. In the majority of experiments it was not sterilized.
Survival and plasmid transfer is described, as are variations in temperature, time, moisture, pH and soil packing. Further experiments were with or without added energy sources, and with or without plant roots. Under standard conditions (22°C, pH 5.2, 15.5% moisture, loose soil, 2 × 10⁷ inoculated donor and recipient cells each per g soil, 3 days incubation) sterilized soil gave low rates of plasmid transfer (10⁻⁶ per donor) but non-sterilized soil gave none. Adding Luria broth or sucrose to non-sterilized soil elicited strong cell propagation, together with plasmid transfer (optimum after incubation for 1 day: 10⁻⁴ exconjugants per donor). No transfer could be registered in the presence of wheat seedling roots for periods up to 5 weeks.     

Characterization of rhizosphere colonization by luminescent Enterobacter cloacae at the population and single-cell levels.

A bioluminescence marker system was used to characterized colonization of the rhizosphere by a bacterial inoculum, both in terms of population activity and at the single-cell level. Plasmid pQF70/44, which contains luxAB genes under the control of a strong constitutive phage promoter, was introduced into the rhizobacterium and model biocontrol agent Enterobacter cloacae. Light output from the lux-modified strain was detected by luminometry of samples from growing cultures of E. cloacae and from inoculated soil and wheat root samples. The minimum detection limits for fully active cells under optimum conditions were 90 and 445 cells g-1 for liquid culture and soil, respectively. The metabolic activities of the lux-marked population of E. cloacae, characterized by luminometry, contrasted in rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soil. Cells in the rhizosphere were active, and there was a linear relationship between light output and cell concentration. The activity of cells in nonrhizosphere coil could not be detected unless the soil was supplied with substrate. Novel use of a charge-coupled device is reported for the spatial characterization of rhizosphere colonization by E. cloacae (pQF70/44) at the single-cell and population levels. Used macroscopically, the charge-coupled device identified differences in colonization due to competition from indigenous soil organisms. The lux-marked bacterium was able to colonize all depths of roots in the absence of competition but was restricted tot he spermosphere in the presence of competition (nonsterile soil).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Rates of root and organism growth, soil conditions, and temporal and spatial development of the rhizosphere

BACKGROUND: Roots growing in soil encounter physical, chemical and biological environments that influence their rhizospheres and affect plant growth. Exudates from roots can stimulate or inhibit soil organisms that may release nutrients, infect the root, or modify plant growth via signals. These rhizosphere processes are poorly understood in field conditions. SCOPE AND AIMS: We characterize roots and their rhizospheres and rates of growth in units of distance and time so that interactions with soil organisms can be better understood in field conditions. We review: (1) distances between components of the soil, including dead roots remnant from previous plants, and the distances between new roots, their rhizospheres and soil components; (2) characteristic times (distance(2)/diffusivity) for solutes to travel distances between roots and responsive soil organisms; (3) rates of movement and growth of soil organisms; (4) rates of extension of roots, and how these relate to the rates of anatomical and biochemical ageing of root tissues and the development of the rhizosphere within the soil profile; and (5) numbers of micro-organisms in the rhizosphere and the dependence on the site of attachment to the growing tip. We consider temporal and spatial variation within the rhizosphere to understand the distribution of bacteria and fungi on roots in hard, unploughed soil, and the activities of organisms in the overlapping rhizospheres of living and dead roots clustered in gaps in most field soils. CONCLUSIONS: Rhizosphere distances, characteristic times for solute diffusion, and rates of root and organism growth must be considered to understand rhizosphere development. Many values used in our analysis were estimates. The paucity of reliable data underlines the rudimentary state of our knowledge of root-organism interactions in the field.     

Survival of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis introduced into two soils of different texture in field microplots

Abstract Antibiotic-resistant strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis , produced by transposon Tn5 mutagenesis and transformation with plasmid pFT30, respectively, were characterized. Both strains grew at a rate comparable to that of the wild-type strains, and the antibiotic resistance remained stable for over 50 generations without selective pressure. During the growing season, the survival of these strains was studied in two soils of different texture cropped with wheat. The B. subtilis populations declined rapidly in both soils and then stabilized at the levels of added spores. P. fluorescens showed a slow, steady decline in both soils; survival was better in the finer-textured soil, a silt loam, than in the coarser loamy sand. For both bacteria, some translocation to deeper soil layers was observed. No significant rhizosphere effects were detected in either of the two soils.     

Transport of a genetically engineered Pseudomonas fluorescens strain through a soil microcosm.

Vertical soil microcosms flushed with groundwater were used to study the influence of water movement on survival and transport of a genetically engineered Pseudomonas fluorescens C5t strain through a loamy sand and a loam soil. Transport of cells introduced into the top 1 cm of the vertical soil microcosms was dependent on the flow rate of water and the number of times microcosms were flushed with groundwater. The presence of wheat roots growing downward in the microcosms contributed only slightly to the movement of P. fluorescens C5t cells to lower soil regions of the loamy sand microcosms, but enhanced downward transport in the loam microcosms. Furthermore, the introduced P. fluorescens C5t cells were detected in the effluent water samples even after three flushes of groundwater and 10 days of incubation. As evidenced by a comparison of counts from immunofluorescence and selective plating, nonculturable C5t cells occurred in day 10 soil and percolated water samples, primarily of the loamy sand microcosms. Vertical soil microcosms that use water movement may be useful in studying the survival and transport of genetically engineered bacteria in soil under a variety of conditions prior to field testing.     

Survival of, and induced stress resistance in, carbon-starved Pseudomonas fluorescens cells residing in soil.

We investigated the survival, cell length, and development of general stress resistance in populations of Pseudomonas fluorescens R2f and its rifampin-resistant mutant, R2f Rpr, following exposure to carbon starvation conditions in liquid cultures and residence in two different soils, Flevo silt loam (FSL) and Ede loamy sand (ELS). In much the same way as was recently shown for P. putida KT2442, carbon-starved P. fluorescens R2f populations revealed enhanced resistance to otherwise lethal treatments, such as exposure to ethanol, high temperature, osmotic tension, and oxidative stress. A large population of nonculturable P. fluorescens R2f Rpr cells arose shortly after their introduction into ELS soil, whereas the formation of nonculturable cells was not observed in FSL soil. Also, the inoculant cell (based on immunofluorescence) and CFU counts decreased faster in ELS soil than in FSL soil. Introduction of carbon-starved instead of exponential-growth-phase R2f Rpr cells into ELS soil did not affect bacterial survival. The inoculant cell length decreased in soil, and no large differences in cell length in the two soil types were observed. Addition of glucose to ELS soil resulted in a stable cell length of R2f Rpr cells, whereas carbon-starved cells introduced into ELS soil remained small. Exponentially growing R2f Rpr cells developed enhanced resistance to ethanol, high temperature, osmotic tension, and oxidative stress within 1 day in both soils, whereas cells introduced into ELS soil amended with glucose showed decreased resistance. Cells that were carbon starved prior to introduction into ELS soil showed unchanged stress resistance levels upon residence in soil.     

Soil types with different texture affects development of Rhizoctonia root rot of wheat seedlings

The effect of different soil textures, sandy (97.5% sand, 1.6% silt, 0.9% clay), loamy sand (77% sand, 11% silt, 12% clay) and a sandy clay loam (69% sand, 7% silt, 24% clay), on root rot of wheat caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Anastomosis Group (AG) 8 was studied under glasshouse conditions. The reduction in root and shoot biomass following inoculation with AG-8 was greater in sand than in loamy sand or sandy clay loam. Dry root weight of wheat in the sand, loamy sand and sandy clay loam soils infested with AG-8 was 91%, 55% and 28% less than in control uninfested soils. There was greater moisture retention in the loamy sand and sandy clay loam soils as compared to the sand in the upper 10–20 cm. Root penetration resistance was greater in loamy sand and sandy clay loam than in sand. Root growth in the uninfested soil column was faster in the sand than in the loamy sand and sandy clay loam soils, the roots in the sandy soil being thinner than in the other two soils. Radial spread of the pathogen in these soils in seedling trays was twice as fast in the sand in comparison to the loamy sand which in turn was more than twice that in the sandy clay loam soil. There was no evidence that differences among soils in pathogenicity or soil spread of the pathogen was related to their nutrient status. This behaviour may be related to the severity of the disease in fields with sandy soils as compared to those with loam or clay soils. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A specific marker,pat, for studying the fate of introduced bacteria and their DNA in soil using a combination of detection techniques

A specific eucaryotic DNA marker from Solanum tuberosum cv Bintje (688 bp patatin cDNA fragment) was cloned into the unique HindIII-site of plasmid RP4. RP4:: pat was transferred from Escherichia coli to Pseudomonas fluorescens R2f by filter mating.Homology to pat was not detected in the microbial population of Ede loamy sand soil, nor in that of the rhizosphere of wheat growing in this soil, as evidenced by colony filter hybridization. More sensitive molecular detection techniques like most-probable-number recovery/hybridization analysis, and analysis of total community DNA from soil by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification did not reveal the presence of the pat sequence either. P. fluorescens R2f (RP4:: pat), introduced into sterile soil extract microcosms, initially showed poor survival and plasmid loss, after which the introduced populations grew and stabilized at a level of about Log₁₀ 7 cfu per mL. Between 25 and 50% of the population maintained the plasmid, as evidenced by filter hybridization of colonies from non-selective agar plates using the pat fragment as probe.Introduced R2f (RP4:: pat) could be recovered from soil microcosms using selective plating followed by colony hybridization and MPN recovery/hybridization with the pat probe. The presence of the pat marker always coincided with the presence of the resistance genes on RP4:: pat, indicating pat was an adequate marker of the presence of this plasmid. In addition, it adequately described the population dynamics of the introduced strain in soil, since no loss of the plasmid occurred.Hybridization to pat was also useful to show transfer of plasmid RP4:: pat to a recipient strain in soil; transfer to indigenous bacteria was not detected.Analysis by slot-blot hybridization of total community DNA extracted from inoculated soils indicated about Log₁₀ 6 cfu per g of dry soil were still detectable. Application of the PCR on this DNA indicated pat was detectable at least at a level of Log₁₀ 4 immunofluorescence-detectable cells per g of dry soil. Thus extraction of total community DNA followed by PCR permitted the detection of genetically engineered microorganisms present in soil as non-culturable cells.     

Transport of a genetically engineered Pseudomonas fluorescens strain through a soil microcosm

Vertical soil microcosms flushed with groundwater were used to study the influence of water movement on survival and transport of a genetically engineered Pseudomonas fluorescens C5t strain through a loamy sand and a loam soil. Transport of cells introduced into the top 1 cm of the vertical soil microcosms was dependent on the flow rate of water and the number of times microcosms were flushed with groundwater. The presence of wheat roots growing downward in the microcosms contributed only slightly to the movement of P. fluorescens C5t cells to lower soil regions of the loamy sand microcosms, but enhanced downward transport in the loam microcosms. Furthermore, the introduced P. fluorescens C5t cells were detected in the effluent water samples even after three flushes of groundwater and 10 days of incubation. As evidenced by a comparison of counts from immunofluorescence and selective plating, nonculturable C5t cells occurred in day 10 soil and percolated water samples, primarily of the loamy sand microcosms. Vertical soil microcosms that use water movement may be useful in studying the survival and transport of genetically engineered bacteria in soil under a variety of conditions prior to field testing.