Recovery from training: a brief review: brief review

Athletes spend a much greater proportion of their time recovering than they do in training. Yet, much attention has been given to training with very little investigation of recovery. The purpose of this review is to stimulate further research into this vital area of training. Recovery can be categorized in three terms: i) immediate recovery between exertions; ii) short-term recovery between repeats (e.g., between resistance sets or interval bouts); and iii) training recovery between workouts. The focus of this review is training recovery. Full training recovery is essential to optimal performance and improvement. This review includes an examination of extant research on recovery and a very brief review of some potential modalities and techniques for hastening recovery and the time course of recovery and responses to some treatments. Measures of recovery and practical considerations are discussed briefly. Much research is needed in this area, but there are obstacles to high quality research. Attention must be given to key issues in research on recovery, especially the individual response to recovery treatments.     

Bioavailability of hydroxycinnamates: a brief review of in vivo and in vitro studies

Hydroxycinnamates including p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, and their esterified/etherified conjugates such as chlorogenic acids are abundant in cereals, coffee, fruit and vegetables. Studies have shown their potential in the prevention of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer. The impact of these dietary hydroxycinnamates on health depends on their bioavailability. In this article, in vivo and in vitro studies pertaining to bioavailability of hydroxycinnamates are reviewed and discussed. The chemical structures, existing forms, and/or doses of hydroxycinnamates may affect their metabolic fate. Limited studies suggest that the relative bioavailability of hydroxycinnamates may be in the following order: chlorogenic acid < rosmarinic acid < caffeic acid < ferulic acid < p-coumaric acid. Bound hydroxycinnamates generally have lower bioavailability than their monomer counterparts. Further pharmacokinetic and phamacodynamic studies are required to characterize the metabolism of hydroxycinnamates and their potential health impact in humans.     

Bats and Viruses： a Brief Review

Bats, probably the most abundant, diverse and geographically dispersed vertebrates on earth, have recently been shown to be the reservoir hosts of a number of emerging viruses responsible for severe human and livestock disease outbreaks. Flying foxes have been demonstrated to be the natural reservoir for Hendra and Nipah viruses. Evidence supporting the possibility of bats as potential reservoirs for SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Ebola virus has also been reported. The recent discovery of these viruses and other viruses occurring naturally in the bat population provides a unique insight into a diverse pool of potentially emergent and pathogenic viruses. The factors which influence the ability of zoonotic viruses to effectively cross the species barrier from bats to other animal populations are poorly understood. A brief review is provided here on the recently emerged bat viruses and on current and future strategies for research in this area.     

A review of the status of alternative approaches to animal testing and the development of integrated testing strategies for assessing the toxicity of chemicals under REACH--a summary of a DEFRA-funded project conducted by Liverpool John Moores University and FRAME

Liverpool John Moores University and FRAME were recently awarded a DEFRA tender to conduct a review of the status of alternative approaches to animal testing, and to recommend further research with regard to the forthcoming European Union REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals) system for the safety testing and risk assessment of chemicals. The outcome of the project is summarised, including the prospects for in vitro and in silico testing, areas where reduction and refinement could be applied, and how decision-tree integrated testing strategies could be used to reduce the number of animals needed to fulfil the testing requirements of the REACH system. This paper is a prelude to a series of individual papers on detailed suggestions for applying non-animal methods to each of the major toxicity endpoints in REACH.     

Zooplankton invasions: a brief review,plus two case studies from the northeast Pacific Ocean

Invasions of aquatic habitats by non-indigenous species (NIS), including zooplankton, are occurring at an alarming rate and are causing global concern. Although hundreds of such invasions have now been documented, surprisingly little is known about the basic biology and ecology of these invaders in their new habitats. Here we provide an overview of the published literature on NIS zooplankton, separated by life history (holoplankton vs. meroplankton), habitat (marine, estuarine, freshwater), and biological level of organization or topic (e.g. distribution and range extension, physiology, behavior, feeding, community impacts, ecosystem dynamics, etc). Amongst the many findings generated by our literature search, perhaps the most striking is the paucity of studies on community and ecosystem level impacts of NIS zooplankton, especially in marine and estuarine systems. We also present some results from two ongoing studies of invasive zooplankton in the northeast Pacific Ocean – Pseudodiaptomus inopinus in Washington and Oregon coastal estuaries, and Tortanus dextrilobatus in San Francisco Bay. Both of these Asian copepods have recently expanded their range and can at times be extremely abundant (10³ m^–3). We also examine some aspects of the trophic (predator–prey) ecology of these two invasive copepods, and find that they are likely to be important in the flow of material and energy in the systems in which they now pervade, although their impacts at the ecosystem level remain to be quantified. Finally, the findings of both our literature search and our two case studies of invasive zooplankton lead us to make several recommendations for future research.     

Genetic toxicity and carcinogenicity studies of glutaraldehyde--a review

Glutaraldehyde is a high production volume chemical that is highly reactive and has many medical and industrial uses. The majority of human exposures are via inhalation, but the exposure is not widespread. It has been extensively tested for genetic activity in vitro and in vivo, and there is disagreement in the literature with regard to glutaraldehyde's genetic activity. Glutaraldehyde produced DNA damage in bacteria and some cultured mammalian cell systems. In vitro, it was mutagenic in Salmonella and E. coli, produced inconsistent positive responses in mammalian cells, weak and inconsistent responses in chromosome aberration and SCE studies, and did not induce transformation in cultured SHE cells. In vivo, inhalation of glutaraldehyde induced cell proliferation in nasal tissue in rats and mice, but DNA damage and UDS were not induced at these sites in rats. Chromosome aberrations in bone marrow cells were reported in only one of eight studies using rats and mice, micronuclei were not induced in bone marrow cells of mice, and dominant lethal mutations were not induced in mice. Glutaraldehyde did not induce cell transformation in SHE cells in vitro. Bone marrow hyperplasia and low, but statistically significant, levels of leukemia were seen in one chronic drinking water study in rats, but not in a chronic inhalation study in rats or two chronic inhalation studies in mice.     

Salmonella, the host and disease: a brief review

Salmonella species cause substantial morbidity, mortality and burden of disease globally. Infections with Salmonella species cause multiple clinical syndromes. Central to the pathophysiology of all human salmonelloses is the induction of a strong host innate immune/inflammatory response. Whether this ultimately reflects an adaptive advantage to the host or pathogen is not clear. However, it is evident that both the host and pathogen have evolved mechanisms of triggering host responses that are detrimental to the other. In this review, we explore some of the host and pathogenic mechanisms mobilized in the two predominant clinical syndromes associated with infection with Salmonella enterica species: enterocolitis and typhoid.     

Selenium interactions and toxicity: a review

Selenium is an essential trace element for mammals. Through selenoproteins, this mineral participates in various biological processes such as antioxidant defence, thyroid hormone production, and immune responses. Some reports indicate that a human organism deficient in selenium may be prone to certain diseases. Adverse health effects following selenium overexposure, although very rare, have been found in animals and people. Contrary to selenium, arsenic and cadmium are regarded as toxic elements. Both are environmental and industrial pollutants, and exposure to excessive amounts of arsenic or cadmium can pose a threat to many people’s health, especially those living in polluted regions. Two other elements, vanadium and chromium(III) in trace amounts are believed to play essential physiological functions in mammals. This review summarizes recent studies on selenium interactions with arsenic and cadmium and selenium interactions with vanadium and chromium in mammals. Human studies have demonstrated that selenium may reduce arsenic accumulation in the organism and protect against arsenic-related skin lesions. Selenium was found to antagonise the prooxidant and genotoxic effects of arsenic in rodents and cell cultures. Also, studies on selenium effects against oxidative stress induced by cadmium in various animal tissues produced promising results. Reports suggest that selenium protection against toxicity of arsenic and cadmium is mediated via sequestration of these elements into biologically inert conjugates. Selenium-dependent antioxidant enzymes probably play a secondary role in arsenic and cadmium detoxification. So far, few studies have evaluated selenium effects on chromium(III) and vanadium actions in mammals. Still, they show that selenium may interact with these minerals. Taken together, the recent findings regarding selenium interaction with other elements extend our understanding of selenium biological functions and highlight selenium as a potential countermeasure against toxicity induced by arsenic and cadmium.     

Alexithymia as a prognostic risk factor for health problems: a brief review of epidemiological studies

The number of articles on alexithymia has been steadily increasing since the word “alexithymia” was coined in the 1970s to denote a common characteristic that is observed among classic psychosomatic patients in whom therapy was unsuccessful. Alexithymia, a disorder of affect regulation, has been suggested to be broadly associated with various mental and physical health problems. However, most available evidence is based on anecdotal reports or cross-sectional observations. To clarify the predictive value of alexithymia for health problems, a systematic review of prospective studies was conducted. A search of the PubMed database identified 1,507 articles on “alexithymia” that were published by July 31, 2011. Among them, only 7 studies examined the developmental risks of alexithymia for health problems among nonclinical populations and 38 studies examined the prognostic value of alexithymia among clinical populations. Approximately half of the studies reported statistically significant adverse effects, while 5 studies demonstrated favorable effects of alexithymia on health outcomes; four of them were associated with surgical interventions and two involved cancer patients. The studies that showed insignificant results tended to have a small sample size. In conclusion, epidemiological evidence regarding alexithymia as a prognostic risk factor for health problems remains un-established. Even though alexithymia is considered to be an unfavorable characteristic for disease control and health promotion overall, some beneficial aspects are suggested. More prospective studies with sufficient sample sizes and follow-up period, especially those involving life course analyses, are needed to confirm the contribution of alexithymia to health problems.     

Edwardsiellosis in fish: a brief review

Edwardsiellosis is one of the most important bacterial diseases in fish. Scientific work on this disease started more than forty years ago and numerous workers around the world are continually adding to the knowledge of the disease. In spite of this, not a single article that reviews the enormous scientific data thus generated is available in the English language. This article briefly discusses some of the recent research on edwardsiellosis, describing the pathogen’s interaction with the host and environment, its pathogenesis and pathology as well as diagnostic, preventive and control measures.     

Edwardsiellosis in fish: a brief review

Edwardsiellosis is one of the most important bacterial diseases in fish. Scientific work on this disease started more than forty years ago and numerous workers around the world are continually adding to the knowledge of the disease. In spite of this, not a single article that reviews the enormous scientific data thus generated is available in the English language. This article briefly discusses some of the recent research on edwardsiellosis, describing the pathogen's interaction with the host and environment, its pathogenesis and pathology as well as diagnostic, preventive and control measures.     

Statistical consistency and phylogenetic inference: a brief review

The claim that parsimony can be statistically inconsistent remains the chief criticism of the cladistic approach, and also the main justification for alternative model‐based approaches such as maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. Despite its refutation in the 1980s, this persistent myth of parsimony's Achilles’ heel is entrenched in the primary literature, and has metastasized into textbooks, as well. Here, I review historical controversies, and offer three short arguments as to why statistical consistency is not only irrelevant to systematics, but to empirical science in general.     

Coral growth and reef growth: a brief review

The growth potential of modern zooxanthellate corals from the major reef provinces is reviewed with respect to Holocene reef growth. Both coral growth and reef growth is enhanced globally at the beginning of the Holocene and is maintained regionally in the Caribbean Sea up to the present in contrast to reefs of the Indo-Pacific Ocean. This regional difference is mainly caused by the siphoning effect of the tropical Atlantic, which is characterised still by a rising sea level in contrast to global ocean. Hence, Indo-Pacific reefs exhibit a well-cemented reef crest and reef roof barren of living corals. The evaluation of reef growth rates throughout the Phanerozoic shows reduced growth rates of more than one order of magnitude in comparison to their modern counterparts. This is a result of compaction and diagenesis but also strongly biased by uncertainties in absolute dating. Point counting of individual framebuilders with known growth rate may result in more comparative figures for growth rates of fossil reefs with respect to modern ones.