Managing biosecurity threats in China

Compared to the extensive literature on bioterrorism and biosecurity in the United States, less analysis has been conducted on similar challenges in China. This article seeks to fill this void by providing an integrated and updated assessment of 3 major biosecurity threats China faces: biowarfare, bioterrorism, and biocrimes. An analysis of China's biosecurity threats and biodefense building suggest varying levels of risk associated with each threat type. First, a direct bioweapons attack on China is highly unlikely, although the threat of biowarfare cannot be simply written off. Second, potential perpetrators of bioterrorism have capabilities at their disposal for carrying out such attacks. While terrorist organizations in China do not have a strong interest in bioterrorism, the limited state capability to counter such a threat may increase the risk in the future. Third, unlike the threats of biowarfare and bioterrorism, potential perpetrators of biocrimes have both incentives and capabilities, and biocrimes can produce reactions far out of proportion to the actual number of casualties. Despite the distinct biosecurity challenges it faces, China has yet to articulate a differentiated and coherent strategy to effectively tackle the challenges. Assessing different types of biosecurity threats in terms of degrees of risk not only provides greater analytical clarity but also has important implications for the strategies required to manage the risks.     

Improving performance of HVAC systems to reduce exposure to aerosolized infectious agents in buildings; recommendations to reduce risks posed by biological attacks

The prospect of biological attacks is a growing strategic threat. Covert aerosol attacks inside a building are of particular concern. In the summer of 2005, the Center for Biosecurity of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center convened a Working Group to determine what steps could be taken to reduce the risk of exposure of building occupants after an aerosol release of a biological weapon. The Working Group was composed of subject matter experts in air filtration, building ventilation and pressurization, air conditioning and air distribution, biosecurity, building design and operation, building decontamination and restoration, economics, medicine, public health, and public policy. The group focused on functions of the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems in commercial or public buildings that could reduce the risk of exposure to deleterious aerosols following biological attacks. The Working Group's recommendations for building owners are based on the use of currently available, off-the-shelf technologies. These recommendations are modest in expense and could be implemented immediately. It is also the Working Group's judgment that the commitment and stewardship of a lead government agency is essential to secure the necessary financial and human resources and to plan and build a comprehensive, effective program to reduce exposure to aerosolized infectious agents in buildings.     

Impact of Avian Influenza on Village Poultry Production Globally

Village poultry and their owners were frequently implicated in disease transmission in the early days of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 pandemic. With improved understanding of the epidemiology of the disease, it was recognized that village poultry raised under extensive conditions pose less of a threat than intensively raised poultry of homogeneous genetic stock with poor biosecurity. This paper provides an overview of village poultry production and the multiple ways that the HPAI H5N1 pandemic has impacted on village poultry, their owners, and the traders whose livelihoods are intimately linked to these birds. It reviews impact in terms of gender and cultural issues; food security; village poultry value chains; approaches to biosecurity; marketing; poultry disease prevention and control; compensation; genetic diversity; poultry as part of livelihood strategies; and effective communication. It concludes on a positive note that there is growing awareness amongst animal health providers of the importance of facilitating culturally sensitive dialogue to develop HPAI prevention and control options.     

生物安全时代:新生物科技变革与国家安全治理*

科技进步改进了人类对天然生物危害因子的操控能力,在诱发新的生物安全危害形态的同时,也赋予了生物安全客体的源头难以追溯性、生物安全主体的多元性、生物安全危害演变机理的复杂性等特点。生物安全在很大程度上体现了非传统安全的非传统特点。随着生物科技与生物安全在推动人类社会发展进程的作用日益显著,21世纪或将成为生物安全的时代。新一轮生物科技变革及其与人类社会互动衍生的生物安全问题,已经逐渐触及人类安全观念和现代文明的内源性危机或挑战。全面提升国家生物安全能力、优化国家生物安全治理,不仅是世界各国的战略选择,也是对人类科技文明与政治文明的新探索。     

Taming the complexity of large models

There are many complex biological models that fit the data perfectly and yet do not reflect the cellular reality. The process of validating a large model should therefore be viewed as an ongoing mission that refines underlying assumptions by improving low-confidence areas or gaps in the model''s construction.At its most basic, science is about models. Natural phenomena that were perplexing to ancient humans have been systematically illuminated as scientific models have revealed the mathematical order underlying the natural world. But what happens when the models themselves become complex enough that they too must be interpreted to be understood?In 2012, Jonathan Karr, Markus Covert and colleagues at the University of California, San Diego (USA) produced a bold new biological model that attempts to simulate an entire cell: iMg [1]. iMg merges 28 sub-modules of processes within Mycobacterium genitalium, one of the simplest organisms known to man. As a systems biology big-data model, iMg is unique in its scope and is an undeniable paragon of good craft. Because it is probable that this landmark paper will soon be followed by other whole cell models, we feel it is timely to examine this important endeavour, its challenges and potential pitfalls.Building a model requires making many decisions, such as which processes to glaze over and which to reconstruct in detail, how many and what kinds of connections to forge between the model''s constituents, and how to determine values for the model''s parameters. The standard practice has been to tune a model''s parameters and its structure to a best fit with the available data. But this approach breaks down when building a large whole cell model because the number of decisions inflates with the model''s size, and the amount of data required for these decisions to be unequivocal becomes huge. This problem is fundamental, not merely technical, and is rooted in the principle of frugality that underlies all science: Occam''s razor.The problem posed by Occam''s razor is that there are vastly more potential large models that can successfully predict and explain any given body of data than there are small ones. As we can tweak increasingly complex models in an increasing number of ways, we can produce many large models that fit the data perfectly and yet do not reflect the cellular reality. Even if a model fits all the data well, the chance of it happening to be the ‘correct'' model—in other words the one that reflects correctly the underlying cellular architecture and relevant enzymatic parameters—is inversely related to its complexity. A sophisticated large model such as iMg, which has been fitted to many available datasets, will certainly recapture many behaviours of the real system. But it could also recapture many other potentially wrong ones.How do we test a model''s correctness in the sense just mentioned? The intuitive way is to make and test predictions about previously uncharted phenomena. But validating a large biological model is an inherently different challenge than the common practice of “predict, test and validate” customary with smaller ones. Validation using phenotypic ‘emerging'' predictions would require such large amounts of data that it would be highly inefficient and costly at this scale, especially as many of these predictions will turn out to be false leads, with negative results yielding little insight. Rather, the correctness of a whole-cell model is perhaps best validated by using a complementary paradigm: direct testing of the basic decisions that went into the model''s construction. For example, enzymatic rate constants that were fitted in order to make the model behave properly could be experimentally scrutinized for later versions. Performing extensive sensitivity analyses and incorporating known confidence levels of modelling decisions, or harnessing more advanced methods such as ‘active learning'' should all be used in conjunction to determine which parameters to focus on in the future. The process of validating a large model should thus be viewed as an ongoing mission that aims to produce more refined and accurate drafts by improving low-confidence areas or gaps in the model''s construction. Step by step, this paradigm should increase a model''s reliability and ability to make valid new predictions.An open discussion of the potential pitfalls and benefits of building complex biological models could not be timelier, as both the EU and the US have just committed more than a combined 1.4 billion dollars to explicitly model the human brain. Massive data collection and big data analysis are the new norm in most fields, and big models are following closely behind. Their cost, usefulness and application remain open for discussion, but we certainly laud the spirit of the effort. For what is certain is this: only by building these models will we know what usefulness we can attribute to them. Paraphrasing Paul Cezzane, these efforts might be indeed justified and worthy, so long as one is “more or less master of his model”.     

Biosecurity Implications of New Technology and Discovery in Plant Virus Research

Human activity is causing new encounters between viruses and plants. Anthropogenic interventions include changing land use, decreasing biodiversity, trade, the introduction of new plant and vector species to native landscapes, and changing atmospheric and climatic conditions. The discovery of thousands of new viruses, especially those associated with healthy-appearing native plants, is shifting the paradigm for their role within the ecosystem from foe to friend. The cost of new plant virus incursions can be high and result in the loss of trade and/or production for short or extended periods. We present and justify three recommendations for plant biosecurity to improve communication about plant viruses, assist with the identification of viruses and their impacts, and protect the high economic, social, environmental, and cultural value of our respective nations'' unique flora: 1) As part of the burden of proof, countries and jurisdictions should identify what pests already exist in, and which pests pose a risk to, their native flora; 2) Plant virus sequences not associated with a recognized virus infection are designated as “uncultured virus” and tentatively named using the host plant species of greatest known prevalence, the word “virus,” a general location identifier, and a serial number; and 3) Invest in basic research to determine the ecology of known and new viruses with existing and potential new plant hosts and vectors and develop host-virus pathogenicity prediction tools. These recommendations have implications for researchers, risk analysts, biosecurity authorities, and policy makers at both a national and an international level.     

Modelling biosecurity change: Ecology, economics, technology and social values

The threats and responses to biosecurity are constantly changing, creating decision problems for policy makers setting priorities for future biosecurity systems. In the United Kingdom during 2003–04, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) commissioned a Horizon Scanning project to predict the future (20–30 years) of biosecurity needs in the United Kingdom. This project created an integrated model of key ecological, economic and technological processes involved in the development and control of invasive species, across a range of taxa, and also sought views on social values that could limit response options and affect the economic and political importance of introduced species. The model demonstrates the ability to make useful probability- based estimates of economic impact given practical assumptions on ecological, economic and technological inputs. Sensitivity analyses show where improved data could reduce uncertainty. The model establishes a framework that has been used to identify major drivers of biosecurity change affecting the next generation: increased and more diverse trade and travel increasing the entry of new species; climate change affecting establishment and spread of pests introduced from new zones that could approximate Britain’s climate; social values affecting attitudes to control measures such as animal culling and greater concern for environmental and amenity resources rather than agriculture; and technological improvements in pest detection. An important economic issue affecting the value of the impact caused by invasions is the time scale over which the impact is felt, ranging from immediate in the case of many livestock diseases through to the long-delayed recognition of loss of environmental quality from competition or diseases affecting native plants. New pest detection technology offers substantial opportunity to improve eradication of introduced species and could affect the prevention versus cure paradigm for many species for which general exclusion systems are presently adopted. An integrated modelling framework allows some quantification of these drivers and offers a tool to guide biosecurity planning.     

Academic labour shortages. A lack of trained scientists could slow down research in Europe

A shortage of skilled science labour in Europe could hold back research progress. The EU will increase science funding to address the problem, but real long-term measures need to start in schools, not universities.Scientists have always warned about the doom of research that could result from a shortage of students and skilled labour in the biomedical sciences. In the past, this apocalyptic vision of empty laboratories and unclaimed research grants has seemed improbable, but some national research councils and the European Union (EU) itself now seem to think that we may be on the brink of a genuine science labour crisis in Europe. This possibility, and its potential effects on economic growth, has proven sufficiently convincing for the European Commission (EC) to propose a 45% increase to its seven-year research and development budget of 45%—from €55 billion, provided under the Framework Programme (FP7), to €80 billion—for a new strategic programme for research and innovation called Horizon 2020 that will start in 2014.This bold proposal to drastically increase research funding, which comes at a time when many other budgets are being frozen or cut, was rigorously defended in May 2012 by the EU ministers responsible for science and innovation, against critics who argued that such a massive increase could not be justified given the deepening economic crisis across the EU. So far, the EU seems to be holding to the line that it has to invest more into research if Europe is to compete globally through technological innovation underpinned by scientific research.Europe is caught in a pincer movement between its principle competitors—the USA and Japan, which are both increasing their research budgets way ahead of inflation—and the emerging economies of China, India, Brazil and Russia, which are quickly closing from behind. The main argument for the Horizon 2020 funding boost came from a study commissioned by the EU [1], which led the EC to claim that Europe faces an “innovation emergency” because its businesses are falling behind US and Japanese rivals in terms of investment and new patents. As Martin Lange, Policy Officer for Marie Curie Actions—an EU fellowship programme for scientists—pointed out, “China, India and Brazil have started to rapidly catch up with the EU by improving their performance seven per cent, three per cent and one per cent faster than the EU year on year over the last five years.”According to Lange, Europe''s innovation gap equates to a shortage of around 1 million researchers across the EU, including a large number in chemistry and the life sciences. This raises fundamental issues of science recruitment and retention that a budget increase alone cannot address. The situation has also been confused by the economic crisis, which has led to the position where many graduates are unemployed, and yet there is still an acute shortage of specialist skills in areas vital to research.This is a particularly serious issue in the UK, where around 2,000 researcher jobs were lost following the closure of pharmaceutical company Pfizer''s R&D facility in Kent, announced in February 2011. “The travails of Pfizer have affected the UK recruitment market,” explained Charlie Ball, graduate labour market specialist at the UK''s Higher Education Careers Services Unit. The closure has contributed to high unemployment among graduates, particularly chemists, who tend to be employed in pharmaceutical research in the UK. “Even among people with chemistry doctorates, the unemployment rate is higher than the average,” he said.The issue for chemists, at least in the UK, is not a skills shortage, but a skills mismatch. Ball identified analytical chemistry as one area without enough skilled people, despite the availability of chemists with other specialties. He attributes part of the problem to the pharmaceutical industry''s inability to communicate its requirements to universities and graduates, although he concedes that doing so can be challenging. “One issue is that industry is changing so quickly that it is genuinely difficult to say that in three or four years time we will need people with specific skills,” Ball explained.So far, the EU seems to be holding to the line that it has to invest more into research […] to compete globally through technological innovation underpinned by scientific researchAlongside this shortage of analytical skills, the UK Medical Research Council (MRC) has identified a lack of people with practical research knowledge, and in particular of experience working with animals, as a major factor holding back fundamental and pre-clinical biomedical research in the country. It has responded by encouraging applications from non-UK and even non-EU candidates for doctoral studentships that it funds, in cases where there is a scarcity of suitable UK applicants.But, the underlying problem common to the whole of Europe is more fundamental, at least according to Bengt Norden, Professor of Physical Chemistry at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden. The issue is not a shortage of intellectual capital, Norden argues, but a growing lack of investment into training chemists, which in turn undermines life sciences research. Similarly to many other physical chemists, Norden has worked mainly in biology, where he has applied his expertise in molecular recognition and function to DNA recombination and membrane translocation mechanisms. He therefore views a particularly acute recruitment and retention crisis in chemistry as being a drag on both fundamental and applied research across the life sciences. “The recruitment crisis is severe,” Norden said. “While a small rill of genuinely devoted‘young amateur scientists‘ still may sustain the recruitment chain, there is a general drain of interest in science in general and chemistry in particular.” He attributes this in part to sort of a ‘chemophobia'', resulting from the association of chemistry with environmental pollution or foul odours, but he also blames ignorant politicians and other public figures for their negative attitude towards chemistry. “A former Swedish Prime Minister, Goran Persson, claimed that ‘his political goal was to make Sweden completely free from chemicals'',” Norden explained by way of example.Scientists themselves also need to do a better job of countering the negative perceptions of chemistry and science, perhaps by highlighting the contribution that chemistry is already making to clearing up pollution. Chemistry has been crucial to the development of microorganisms that can be used to break down organic pollutants in industrial waste, or clear up accidental spillage during transport. In fact, chemistry has specifically addressed the two major challenges involved: the risk that genetically engineered microorganisms could threaten the wider environment if they escape, and the problem that the microorganisms themselves can be poisoned if the concentration of pollutants is too high.A team at the University of Buenos Aires in Argentina has solved both problems by developing a material comprising an alginate bead surrounded by a silica gel [2]. This container houses a fungus that produces enzymes that break up a variety of organic pollutants. The pores of the hydrogel can limit the intake of toxic compounds from the polluted surroundings, thus controlling the level of toxicity experienced by the fungus, whilst the fungus itself is encapsulated inside the unit and cannot escape. Norden and others believe that if such examples were given more publicity, they would both improve the reputation of chemistry and science in general, and help to enthuse school students at a formative age.…Europe''s innovation gap equates to a shortage of around 1 million researchers across the EU, including a large number in chemistry and the life sciencesUnfortunately, this is not happening in schools, according to Norden, where the curriculum is failing both to enthuse pupils through practical work, and to inform them of the value of chemistry across society: “school chemistry neither stimulates curiosity nor does it promote understanding of what is most important to everybody,” he said. “It should be realized that well-taught chemistry is a necessary tool for dealing with everyday problems, at home or at work, and in the environment, relating to function of medicines, as well as what is poisonous and what is less noxious. As it is, all chemicals are presented simply as poisons.”Norden believes that a broader cultural element also tends to explain the particular shortage of analytical skills in chemistry. He believes that young people are more inclined than ever before to weigh up the probable rewards of a chosen profession in relation to the effort involved. “There seems to be a ‘cost–benefit'' aspect that young people apply when choosing an academic career: science, including maths, is too hard in relation to the jobs that eventually are available in research,” he explained. This ‘cost–benefit'' factor might not deter people from studying subjects up to university level, but can divert them into careers that pay a lot more. Ball believes that there is also an issue of esteem, in that people tend to gravitate towards careers where they feel valued. “Our most able graduates don''t see parity in esteem between research and other professions being represented by the salary they are paid,” he explained. “That is an issue that needs to be resolved, and it is not just about money, but working hard to convince these graduates that there is a worthwhile career in research.”Our most able graduates don''t see parity in esteem between research and other professions being represented by the salary they are paid,Lange suggests that it would be much easier to persuade the best graduates to stay in science if they were able to pursue their ideas free from bureaucracy or other constraints. This was a main reason to start the Marie Curie Actions programme of which Lange is a part, and which will be continued under Horizon 2020 with a new name, Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions, and an increased budget. “The Marie Curie Actions have been applying a bottom-up principle, allowing researchers to freely choose their topic of research,” Lange explained. “The principle of ‘individual-driven mobility'' that is used in the Individual Fellowships empowers researchers to make their own choices about the scientific topic of their work, as well as their host institutions. […] It is a clear win–win situation for both sides: researchers are more satisfied because they are given the opportunity to take their careers in their own hands, while universities and research organizations value top-class scientists coming from abroad to work at their institutes.”Lange also noted that although Marie Curie Fellows choose their own research subjects, they tend to pursue topics that are relevant to societal needs because they want to find work afterwards. “More than 50% of the FP7 Marie Curie budget has been dedicated to research that can be directly related to the current societal challenges, such as an ageing population, climate change, energy shortage, food and water supply and health,” he said. “This demonstrates that researchers are acting in a responsible way. Even though they have the freedom to choose their own research topics, they still address problems that concern society in general.” In addition, Marie Curie Actions also encourages engagement with the public, feeding back into the wider campaign to draw more people into science careers. “Communicating science to the general public will be of importance as well, if we want to attract more young people to science,” Lange said. “Recently, the Marie Curie Actions started encouraging their Fellows to engage in outreach activities. In addition, we have just launched a call for the Marie Curie Prize, where one of the three Prize categories will be ‘Communicating Science''.”Another important element of the EU''s strategy to stimulate innovative cutting edge research is the European Research Council (ERC). It was the first pan-European funding body for front-line research across the sciences, with a budget of €7.5 billion for the FP7 period of 2007–2013, and has been widely heralded as a success. As a result, the ERC is set to receive an even bigger percentage increase than other departments within Horizon 2020 for the period 2014–2020, with a provisional budget of €13.2 billion.Leading scientists, such as Nobel laureate Jean-Marie Lehn, from Strasbourg University in France, believe that the ERC has made a substantial contribution to innovative research and, as a result, has boosted the reputation of European science. “The ERC has done a fantastic job which is quite independent of pressures from the outside,” he said. “It is good to hear that taking risks is regarded as important.” Lehn also highlighted the importance of making it clear that there are plenty of opportunities in research beyond those funded, and therefore dictated, by the big pharmaceutical companies. “There is chemistry outside big pharma, and life beyond return on investment,” he said. Lehn agreed that there must be a blend between blue sky and goal-oriented research, even if there is an argument over what the blend and goals should be.…the ERC has made a substantial contribution to innovative research and, as a result, has boosted the reputation of European scienceThere is growing optimism that Europe''s main funding bodies, including the national research councils of individual countries, have not only recognized the recruitment problem, but are taking significant steps to address it. Even so, there is still work to be done to improve the image of science and to engage students through more stimulating teaching. Chemistry in particular would benefit from broader measures to attract young people to science. Ultimately, the success of such initiatives will have much broader effects in the life sciences and drug development.     

The changes in China's forests: an analysis using the Forest Identity

Changes in forest carbon stocks are a determinant of the regional carbon budget. In the past several decades, China has experienced a pronounced increase in forest area and density. However, few comprehensive analyses have been conducted. In this study, we employed the Forest Identity concept to evaluate the changing status of China''s forests over the past three decades, using national forest inventory data of five periods (1977–1981, 1984–1988, 1989–1993, 1994–1998, and 1999–2003). The results showed that forest area and growing stock density increased by 0.51% and 0.44% annually over the past three decades, while the conversion ratio of forest biomass to growing stock declined by 0.10% annually. These developments resulted in a net annual increase of 0.85% in forest carbon sequestration, which is equivalent to a net biomass carbon uptake of 43.8 Tg per year (1 Tg = 10¹² g). This increase can be attributed to the national reforestation/afforestation programs, environmentally enhanced forest growth and economic development as indicated by the average gross domestic product.     

To protect and save. A new chapter opens on biodiversity conservation

A more complete catalogue of the Earth''s fauna and flora and a more holistic view of man-made environmental problems could help to slow the rate of biodiversity loss.In the wake of the admission from the United Nations (UN) that, to date, efforts have failed to even slow down the rate of extinction across almost all plant and animal taxa (CBD, 2010), the fight to reverse the human-induced loss of biodiversity is entering a new chapter. The failure to achieve the targets set in 2002 for reducing decline has led to a revised strategy from the Campaign for Biodiversity (CBD). This new approach recognizes that species conservation cannot be treated in isolation from other issues facing humans, including climate change, water scarcity, poverty, agricultural development and global conflict. It also acknowledges that declining biodiversity cannot be tackled properly without a more accurate inventory of the species in existence today. Thus, a large part of the strategy to combat species decline focuses on building an exhaustive catalogue of life.The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation includes such a plan. The intention is to compile an online flora of known plants by 2020, which should enable comprehensive conservation efforts to gather steam. Peter Wyse Jackson, president of the Missouri Botanical Garden in the USA, said that around 25% of the estimated 400,000 plant species in the world, are thought to be threatened. He said that around 850 botanical gardens have, between them, collected around 100,000 species, but only a quarter of these are from the threatened group. “World Flora online will then be an essential baseline to determine the status of individual plant species and threats to them,” Jackson explained. “By 2020 it is proposed that at least 75% of known threatened plants should be conserved both in the wild and in existing collections.”…an online flora of known plants […] should enable comprehensive conservation efforts to gather steamMissouri Botanical Gardens will have an important role in the project and Jackson commented that the first step of the plan has already been achieved: the establishment of an online checklist of flora that is needed to build a comprehensive database of the plant species in the world.Yet, some other plans to halt species decline have drawn criticism. “In my opinion, whilst such international targets are useful to motivate individuals, states and wider society to do conservation, they are not necessarily realistic because they are often ‘pulled out of the hat'' with very little science behind them,” commented Shonil Bhagwat, senior research fellow at the School of Geography and the Environment at Oxford University.The revised CBD plan specifies measures for reversing the decline in biodiversity. One target is to enlarge protected areas for wildlife, within which activities such as logging are prohibited. Ecological corridors could then connect these areas to allow migration and create a network of ‘safe'' places for wildlife.Such a corridor is being created between two parts of the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest—the Pau Brasil National Park and the Monte Pascoal National Park—both of which are already protected. “Well-managed protected areas keep away biodiversity threats, such as deforestation, invasive species, hunting and poaching,” explained Arnd Alexander Rose, marketing manager for Brazil at The Nature Conservancy, a conservation organization that operates on all continents. “We think that the connectivity between the national parks is essential for the long-term permanence of local species, especially fauna,” Rose said.Worldwide, only around 6% of coastlines are within protected areas, but around 12% of the total land area is protected—a figure that is perhaps higher than many would expect, reflecting the large size of many national parks and other designated wildlife zones. Nevertheless, the coverage of different habitats varies greatly: “Only 5% of the world''s temperate needle-leaf forests and woodlands, 4.4% of temperate grasslands and 2.2% of lake systems are protected” (CBD, 2010). The aim of the CBD is to increase the total area of protected land to 17% by 2020, and also to expand the protected coastal zones, as well as extending the area of protected oceans to 10%.Things at sea, however, are different; both in terms of biodiversity and protection. The biggest threat to many marine species is not direct human activity—poaching or habitat encroachment, for example—but the impact of increased ocean acidity due to rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. Halting or reversing this increase will therefore contribute to the marine conservation effort and biodiversity in the long term.However, the first task is to establish the extent of marine biodiversity, particularly in terms of invertebrate animals, which are not well catalogued. Ian Poiner is CEO of the Australian Institute of Marine Science and chair of the steering committee for the first Census of Marine Life (Census of Marine Life, 2010), which has revealed the enormity of our remaining uncertainty. “So far 250,000 species [of invertebrates] have been formally described, but at least another 750,000 remain to be discovered, and I think it could be as many as 10 million,” Poiner said. As evidence for this uncertainty he points to the continuing high rate of discovery of new species around coral reefs, where each organism also tends to come with a new parasite. The situation is compounded by the problem of how to define diversity among prokaryotes.“…250,000 species [of invertebrates] have been formally described, but at least another 750,000 remain to be discovered…”Even if the number of non-vertebrate marine species remaining to be discovered turns out to be at the low end of estimates, Poiner points out that the abundance and diversity of life in the oceans will still be far greater than was expected before the census. For fish—a group that has been more extensively analysed than invertebrates—Poiner notes that there are several thousand species yet to be discovered, in addition to the 25,000 or more known species.The levels of diversity are perhaps most surprising for microorganisms. It was expected that these organisms would be present in astronomically large numbers—they are thought to account for 50–90% of the biomass in the oceans, as measured by total amount of carbon—but the high degree of genetic divergence found within even relatively small areas was unexpected. “We found there are about 38,000 kinds of bacteria in a litre of sea water,” Poiner said. “We also found that rarity is common, especially for microbes. If you take two separate litre samples of sea water just 10 or 20 kilometres apart, only a small percentage of the 38,000 bacteria types in each one are of the same kind. The challenge now is to find out why most are so rare.”This mystery is confounded by another result of the census: there is a much greater degree of connectedness than had been expected. Many fish, and even smaller invertebrate species, travel huge distances and navigate with great accuracy, rather like migratory birds. “Pacific white sharks will travel long distances and come back to within 50 metres from where they started,” Poiner said, by way of example.The behaviour of the sharks was discovered by using new tags, measuring just a few centimetres across, that can be attached to the heads of any large creatures to track their location and measure temperature, conductivity—and thereby salinity—and depth. For smaller creatures, such as baby salmon, a different technology is used that involves the attachment of passive acoustic sensors to their bodies. These trigger a signal when the fish swim through arrays of acoustic receivers that are installed in shallower waters at locations throughout the oceans.Although tagging and acoustic monitoring are providing new information about the movements and interactions of many species throughout the oceans, the huge task remains of identifying and cataloguing those species. For this, the quickly maturing technique of DNA barcoding has been useful and provides a relatively inexpensive and convenient way of assessing whether a specimen belongs to a new species or not. The method uses a short DNA sequence in the mitochondrial gene for cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO1)—around 600 base pairs in most species—which differs little within species but significantly between them (Kress & Erickson, 2008).The Marine Census programme involves several barcoding centres that have determined barcodes for more than 2,000 of the 7,000 known species of holozooplankton, for example (Census of Marine Zooplankton: http://www.cmarz.org). Holozooplankton are small, completely planktonic invertebrates—which spend their lives floating or swimming in open water—and are a particularly sensitive marker of environmental changes such as ocean warming or acidification.DNA barcoding can also be applied to prokaryotes, although it requires alternative sequences owing to the lack of mitochondria. In addition, horizontal gene transfer and uncertainty about how to define prokaryotic species complicate the task of cataloguing them. Nevertheless, by targeting a suitable core subset of a few genes, bacteria and archaea can be identified quite accurately, and barcoding can increase our knowledge and understanding of their behaviour and evolution.Such techniques could be applied to the identification of marine prokaryotic species, but Poiner argues that they need further refinement and will probably need to be combined with analytical methods that help estimate the total diversity, given that it is impossible to identify every single species at present. Indeed, the task of assessing the diversity of even land-based microorganisms is difficult, but such cataloguing is a prerequisite for accurate assessment of their response to environmental change.“There is a general rule that the smaller things are the less we know about them,” commented Stephen Blackmore, Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanical Gardens in Edinburgh, UK, a leading centre for conservation research. “I think it is very difficult or too early to say how biodiversity at the microscopic level is being impacted. Some of the newer approaches using DNA diversity to see, for example, what microorganisms are present in soil, will be important.”In the immediate future, advanced DNA analysis techniques have a more urgent application: the identification of genetic diversity within eukaryotic species. This is important because it determines the ability of populations to cope with rapid change: a species with greater genetic diversity is more likely to have individuals with phenotypes capable of surviving changes in habitat, temperature or nutrient availability. Genetic evidence will help to determine the secret of success for many invasive species of plants and animals, as they have already adapted to human influence.“A major emerging theme is to look at the genetic diversity present in wild plant populations and to try to correlate this with identifying the populations that are best suited for coping with climate change,” Blackmore said. “But it''s a very new field and so far not much is being funded. Meanwhile, the immediate prospect is that plants will continue slipping away more or less un-noticed. Even where the landscape appears green there is generally a steady erosion of plant biodiversity going, on driven by the shrinking of natural habitats, the encroachment of invasive species, climate change and land management practices.”Yet Blackmore is optimistic that knowledge of how to preserve biodiversity is increasing, even for less adaptable species. “We know how to, for example, grow food crops in ways that are more beneficial to biodiversity, but the desire for the cheapest food means that uptake is too limited. We know how to do most of the things needed to protect biodiversity. Unfortunately they are not being done.”There is hope, though, that increased understanding of biodiversity as a single, interconnected problem—rather than a series of unrelated hot spots and particular species—will lead to more coherent strategies for arresting global decline. The fate of flowering plants, for example, is intimately tied to their pollinators and seed dispersers. Most land animals in turn depend directly or indirectly on plants. “Since plants are the base of the food chain in all terrestrial environments, the threats to animals are increasing even more rapidly than those to the plants they depend upon,” Blackmore noted. “It is still the case, however, that most conservation action is framed in terms of charismatic animals—such as tigers, whales, polar bears and pandas—rather than on the continuation of the kinds of place they require to live in.”Due to human nature, this ‘cute'' framing of the problem is perhaps inevitable. However, if it creates a groundswell of public concern leading to voluntary involvement and donation towards biodiversity conservation, then all species might benefit in the end. After all, animals and plants do not respect arbitrary human boundaries, so an ecological corridor and protected habitat created for tigers will also benefit other, less ‘cuddly'' species.     

Will we wake up to biodiversity?: The International Year of Biodiversity has failed to raise awareness or halt decline as economic crises and political interests have sidelined the environment

Looking back on the International Year of Biodiversity, some conservationists hope that it has raised awareness, if nothing else. Even so, many scientists remain pessimistic about our efforts to halt biodiversity decline.The United Nations'' (UN) International Year of Biodiversity in 2010 was supposed to see the adoption of measures that would slow global environmental decline and the continuing loss of endangered species and habitats. Even before, in 2002, most UN members had committed to halting the decline in biodiversity, which is a measure of the health of ecosystems. But the results of these international efforts have been funereal. Moreover, the current global economic crisis, coupled with growing anti-science attitudes in the USA, are adding to the concern of scientists about whether there is the political will to address the loss of biodiversity and whether habitat loss and extinction rates are reaching a point of no return.“There is not a single report received last year that claimed to have stopped or reduced the loss of biodiversity”Ahmed Djoghlaf, Executive Secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity under the UN Environment Programme based in Montreal, Canada, said that of the 175 national reports submitted as part of the International Year of Biodiversity to his agency last year, none reported any progress. “There is not a single report received last year that claimed to have stopped or reduced the loss of biodiversity,” he said. “These reports confirm that the rate of loss of biodiversity today is unprecedented and the rate is 1,000 higher than the rate of natural extinction on species, and [his agency''s Global Biodiversity Outlook 2010; UN, 2010a] predicts that if business is allowed to continue then major ecosystems, the ocean, the fish, the forests, will reach the tipping point, meaning that there will be irreversible and irreparable damage done to the ecosystems.”The UN campaign traces its roots to the European Union (EU) commitment in 2001 to halt the loss of biodiversity by 2010. The 2010 goal was incorporated into the UN Millennium Development Goals because of the severe impact of biodiversity loss on human well-being. However, the EU last year conceded in a report that it missed its 2010 target, too. The EU''s Biodiversity Action Plan, launched in 2006, shows that Europe''s biodiversity “remains under severe threat from the excessive demands we are making on our environment, such as changes in land use, pollution, invasive species and climate change.” Yet, EU Environment Commissioner Janez Potočnik has seen some positive signs: “We have learned some very important lessons and managed to raise biodiversity to the top of the political agenda. But we need everyone on board and not just in Europe. The threat around the world is even greater than in the EU,” he wrote last year (EC, 2010).Despite the initiative''s poor report card, Djoghlaf was upbeat about the International Year of Biodiversity. “It was a success because it was celebrated everywhere,” he said. “In Switzerland, they conducted a survey before and after the International Year of Biodiversity and they concluded that at the end of the year, 67% of all the Swiss people are now aware of biodiversity. When the year started it was 40%. People are more and more aware. In addition, biodiversity has entered the top of the political agenda.”In October 2010, delegates from 193 countries attended the UN Convention on Biodiversity in Nagoya, Japan, and adopted 20 strategic goals to be achieved by 2020 (UN, 2010b). The so-called Aichi Biodiversity Targets include increased public awareness of the values of biodiversity and the steps that individuals can take to conserve and act sustainably; the halving or halting of the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests; and the conservation of 17% of terrestrial and inland water, and 10% of coastal and marine areas through effective and equitable management, resulting in ecologically representative and well-connected systems. By contrast, 13% of land areas and 1% of marine areas were protected in 2010.However, the Convention on Biological Diversity is not enforceable. Anne Larigauderie, Executive Director of DIVERSITAS (Paris, France), which promotes research on biodiversity science, said that it is up to the individual countries to adopt enforceable legislation. “In principle, countries have committed. Now it depends on what individual countries are going to do with the agreement,” she said. “I would say that things are generally going in the right direction and it''s too early to tell whether or not it''s going to have an impact in terms of responding and in terms of the biodiversity itself.”Researchers, however, have been disappointed by The International Year of Biodiversity. Conservation biologist Stuart Butchart, of Birdlife International in Cambridge, UK—a partnership of non-governmental environmental organizations and colleagues from other environmental groups—compiled a list of 31 indicators to measure progress towards the 2010 goal of the International Year of Biodiversity. He and his collaborators reported in Science (Butchart et al, 2010) that these indicators, including species population trends, extinction risks and habitat conditions, showed declines with no significant rate reductions. At the same time, indicators of pressure on biodiversity, such as resource consumption, invasive alien species, nitrogen pollution, over-exploitation and climate change impacts showed increases. “Despite some local successes and increasing responses (including extent and biodiversity coverage of protected areas, sustainable forest management, policy responses to invasive alien species and biodiversity-related aid), the rate of biodiversity loss does not appear to be slowing,” the researchers wrote.​wrote.Open in a separate window© Thomas Kitchin & Victoria Hurst/Wave/CorbisButchart pointed out that even if the International Year of Biodiversity had an impact on raising awareness and reducing biodiversity loss, detecting the change would take time. He said that the International Year of Biodiversity fell short of increasing awareness in parts of government not dealing with the environment, including ministries of transport, tourism, treasury and finance. It also seems probable that the campaign had little impact on the business sector, which affects development projects with a direct impact on biodiversity. “People can''t even seem to get together on global climate change, which is a whole lot more obvious and right there,” Peter Raven, president emeritus of the Missouri Botanical Gardens in St Louis, USA, explained. “Biodiversity always seems to be a sort of mysterious background thing that isn''t quite there.”“People can''t even seem to get together on global climate change, which is a whole lot more obvious and right there…”Illka Hanski, a professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Helsinki in Finland, said that studies such as Butchart''s “indicate that nothing really happened in 2010. Biodiversity decline continued and has been declining over the past 10 years.”Other researchers are more positive, although with reservations. Conservation biologist Thomas Eugene Lovejoy III, Heinz Center Biodiversity Chair and former president of the Center in Washington, DC, USA—a non-partisan, non-profit organization dedicated to advancing sound environmental policy—said that economic trends affect biodiversity and that biodiversity efforts might actually be benefiting from the current global economic crisis. For example, the decline in the housing markets in the USA and Europe has reduced the demand on lumber for new construction and has led to a reduction in deforestation. “Generally speaking, when there is an economic downturn, some of the things that are pressuring biodiversity actually abate somewhat. That''s the good news. The bad news is that the ability to marshal resources to do some things proactively gets harder,” he said.Chris Thomas, a conservation biologist at the University of York in the UK, who studies ecosystems and species in the context of climate change, said that economic depressions do slow the rate of damage to the environment. “But it also takes eyes off the ball of environmental issues. It''s not clear whether these downturns, when you look over a period of a decade, make much difference or not.” Hanski agreed: “[B]ecause there is less economic activity, there may be less use of resources and such. But I don''t think this is a way to solve our problems. It won''t lead to any stable situation. It just leads to a situation where economic policies become more and more dependent on measures that try actually just to increase the growth as soon as possible.”…biodiversity efforts might actually be benefiting from the current global economic crisisRaven said that in bad times, major interests such as those involved in raising cattle, growing soybeans and clearing habitat for oil palms have reduced political clout because there is less money available for investment. But he said economic downturns do not slow poor people scrounging for sustenance in natural habitats.To overcome this attitude of neglect, Lovejoy thinks there ought to be a new type of ‘economics'' that demonstrates the benefits of biodiversity and brings the “natural world into the normal calculus.” Researchers are already making progress in this direction. Thomas said that the valuation of nature is one of the most active areas of research. “People have very different opinions as to how much of it can be truly valued. But it is a rapidly developing field,” he said. “Once you''ve decided how much something is worth, then you''ve got to ask what are the financial or other mechanisms by which the true value of this resource can be appreciated.”Hanski said that the main problem is the short-term view of economic forecasts. “Rapid use of natural resources because of short-term calculation may actually lead to a sort of exploitation rather than conservation or preservation.” He added that the emphasis on economic growth in rich societies in North America and Europe is frustrating. “We have become much richer than in 1970 when there actually was talk of zero growth in serious terms. So now we are richer and we are becoming more and more dependent on continued growth, the opposite of what we should be aiming at. It''s a problem with our society and economics clearly, but I can''t be very optimistic about the biodiversity or other environmental issues in this kind of situation.” He added that biodiversity is still taking a backseat to economics: “There is a very long way to go right now with the economic situation in Europe, it''s clear that these sorts of [biodiversity] issues are not the ones which are currently being debated by the heads of states.”The economic downturn, which has led to reduced government and private funding and declines in endowments, has also hurt organizations dedicated to preserving biodiversity. Butchart said that some of the main US conservation organizations, including the Nature Conservancy and the World Wildlife Federation, have experienced staff cuts up to 30%. “Organizations have had to tighten their belts and reign in programmes just to stay afloat, so it''s definitely impacted the degree to which we could work effectively,” he said. “Most of the big international conservation organizations have had to lay off large numbers of staff.”…a new type of ‘economics'' that demonstrates the benefits of biodiversity and brings the “natural world into the normal calculus”Cary Fowler, Executive Director of the Global Crop Diversity Trust in Rome, Italy, a public–private partnership to fund key crop collections for food security, also feels the extra challenges of the global economic crisis. “We invest our money conservatively like a foundation would in order to generate income that can reliably pay the bills in these seed banks year after year. So I''m always nervous and I have the computer on at the moment looking at what''s happening with the sovereign debt crisis here in Europe. It''s not good,” he said. “Governments are not being very generous with contributions to this area. Donors will rarely give a reason [for cutting funding].”The political situation in the USA, the world''s largest economy, is also not boding well for conservation of and research into biodiversity. The political extremism of the Republican Party during the run up to the 2012 presidential election has worried many involved in biodiversity issues. Republican contender Texas Governor Rick Perry has been described as ‘anti-science'' for his denial of man-made climate change, a switch from the position of 2008 Republican candidate John McCain. Perry was also reported to describe evolution as a “theory that''s out there, and it''s got some gaps in it” at a campaign event in New Hampshire earlier in the year.“Most of the big international conservation organizations have had to lay off large numbers of staff”Raven said this attitude is putting the USA at a disadvantage. “It drives us to an anti-intellectualism and a lack of real verification for anything which is really serious in terms of our general level of scientific education and our ability to act intelligently,” he said.Still, Larigauderie said that although the USA has not signed the conventions on biodiversity, she has seen US observers attend the meetings, especially under the Obama administration. “They just can''t speak,” she said. Meanwhile, Lovejoy said that biodiversity could get lost in the “unbelievable polarisation affecting US politics. I have worked out of Washington for 36 years now—I''ve never seen anything like this: an unwillingness to actually listen to the other side.”Raven said it is vital for the USA to commit to preserving biodiversity nationally and internationally. “It''s extremely important because our progress towards sustainability for the future will depend on our ability to handle biodiversity in large part. We''re already using about half of all the total photosynthetic productivity on land worldwide and that in turn means we''re cutting our options back badly. The US is syphoning money by selling debt and of course promoting instability all over the world,” he explained. “It''s clear that there is no solution to it other than a level population, more moderate consumption levels and new technologies altogether.”The EU and the UN have also changed the time horizon for halting the decline in biodiversity. As part of the Nagoya meeting, the UN announced the UN Decade for Biodiversity. The strategic objectives include a supporting framework for the implementation of the Biodiversity Strategic Plan 2011–2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, as well as guidance to regional and international organizations, and more public awareness of biodiversity issues.But Butchart remains sceptical. “I suspect ‘decades of whatever'' have even less impact than years,” he said. “2008 was the International Year of the Potato. I don''t know how much impact that had on your life and awareness. I think there is greater awareness and greater potential to make significant progress in addressing biodiversity loss now than there was 10 years ago, but the scale of the challenge is still immense.”“…our progress towards sustainability for the future will depend on our ability to handle biodiversity in large part”Hanski has similar doubts. “I believe it''s inevitable that a very large fraction of the species on Earth will go extinct in the next hundred years. I can''t see any change to that.” But he is optimistic that some positive change can be made. “Being pessimistic doesn''t help. The nations still can make a difference.” He said he has observed ecotourism playing a role in saving some species in Madagascar, where he does some of his research.“We''re not going to fundamentally be able to wipe life off the planet,” Thomas said. “We will wipe ourselves off the planet virtually certainly before we wipe life out on Earth. However, from the point of view of humanity as a culture, and in terms of the resources we might be able to get from biodiversity indirectly or directly, if we start losing things then it takes things millions of years to ‘re-evolve'' something that does an equivalent job. From a human perspective, when we wipe lots of things out, they''re effectively permanently lost. Of course it would be fascinating and I would love to be able to come back to the planet in 10 million years and see what it looks like, assuming humans are not here and other stuff will be.”Djoghlaf, by contrast, is more optimistic about our chances: “I believe in the human survival aspect. When humankind realises that the current pattern of production and consumption and the current way that it is dealing with nature is unsustainable, we will wake up.”     

多巴胺对吗啡成瘾大鼠海马区痛觉调制的研究进展

当今社会日益增长的吗啡等阿片类药物的非法滥用已经严重威胁到人类的健康。然而,迄今为止尚没有找到能够较为有效的防治阿片成瘾的方法。目前研究已知,阿片成瘾的形成所涉及的脑区及核团包括中脑腹侧被盖区(VTA)、伏隔核(NAc)、海马等,其成瘾涉及的神经递质系统包括多巴胺、5-羟色胺等。本文将就多巴胺及海马在痛觉调制及药物成瘾过程中的作用进行综述,为吗啡的成瘾与戒断的进一研究及治疗提供线索。     

Circumcision of male children for reduction of future risk for HIV: acceptability among HIV serodiscordant couples in Kampala, Uganda

Introduction

The ultimate success of medical male circumcision for HIV prevention may depend on targeting male infants and children as well as adults, in order to maximally reduce new HIV infections into the future.

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional study among heterosexual HIV serodiscordant couples (a population at high risk for HIV transmission) attending a research clinic in Kampala, Uganda on perceptions and attitudes about medical circumcision for male children for HIV prevention. Correlates of willingness to circumcise male children were assessed using generalized estimating equations methods.

Results

318 HIV serodiscordant couples were interviewed, 51.3% in which the female partner was HIV uninfected. Most couples were married and cohabiting, and almost 50% had at least one uncircumcised male child of ≤18 years of age. Overall, 90.2% of male partners and 94.6% of female partners expressed interest in medical circumcision for their male children for reduction of future risk for HIV infection, including 79.9% of men and 87.6% of women who had an uncircumcised male child. Among both men and women, those who were knowledgeable that circumcision reduces men''s risk for HIV (adjusted prevalence ratio [APR] 1.34 and 1.14) and those who had discussed the HIV prevention effects of medical circumcision with their partner (APR 1.08 and 1.07) were significantly (p≤0.05) more likely to be interested in male child circumcision for HIV prevention. Among men, those who were circumcised (APR 1.09, p = 0.004) and those who were HIV seropositive (APR 1.09, p = 0.03) were also more likely to be interested in child circumcision for HIV prevention.

Conclusions

A high proportion of men and women in Ugandan heterosexual HIV serodiscordant partnerships were willing to have their male children circumcised for eventual HIV prevention benefits. Engaging both parents may increase interest in medical male circumcision for HIV prevention.     

区域综合生态风险评价框架——以雄安新区为例

构建区域生态风险评价框架有助于清晰地识别、评估、模拟、预测与管理区域生态风险,进而为区域生态安全网络构建和生态安全格局保障提供支撑。雄安新区的建设,使该区域面临巨大的土地利用变化,对区域生态系统的结构和功能产生不可忽视的影响,洪涝和干旱灾害对雄安新区及其周边区域生态系统具有显著的威胁。以雄安新区为例,构建包含暴露-响应关系、人为源和自然源相结合的区域综合生态风险评价框架,分别对城市化和气候变化背景下的雄安新区土地利用变化、洪涝灾害、干旱灾害三类胁迫引起的区域生态风险进行了评价和预测,确定其生态风险空间分布特征及变化趋势。结果表明：(1)从时间序列上来看,由于气候变化导致洪涝、干旱等自然灾害的影响,加上雄安新区的土地利用变化,雄安新区的生态风险在2025年后有所上升,但有序的规划和良好的地类配置使得雄安新区起步区在2025年后生态风险程度下降;(2)从空间上看,雄安新区风险高值区主要集中在白洋淀区以西和以南,以及新区东北部部分区域。最后,从土地利用管理、洪涝和干旱灾害预防等角度提出了生态风险防控对策：(1)雄安新区应坚持对土地利用的合理规划和严格管理,切实防止土地的无序利用,密切关注景观...     

The 'National' and the 'Cosmos'. The emergence of synthetic biology in China

How can grass-roots movements evolve into a national research strategy? The bottom-up emergence of synthetic biology in China could give some pointers.Given its potential to aid developments in renewable energy, biosensors, sustainable chemical industries, microbial drug factories and biomedical devices, synthetic biology has enormous implications for economic development. Many countries are therefore implementing strategies to promote progress in this field. Most notably, the USA is considered to be the leader in exploring the industrial potential of synthetic biology (Rodemeyer, 2009). Synthetic biology in Europe has benefited from several cross-border studies, such as the ‘New and Emerging Science and Technology'' programme (NEST, 2005) and the ‘Towards a European Strategy for Synthetic Biology'' project (TESSY; Gaisser et al, 2008). Yet, little is known in the West about Asia''s role in this ‘new industrial revolution'' (Kitney, 2009). In particular, China is investing heavily in scientific research for future developments, and is therefore likely to have an important role in the development of synthetic biology.Initial findings seem to indicate that the emergence of synthetic biology in China has been a bottom-up construction of a new scientific framework…In 2010, as part of a study of the international governance of synthetic biology, the author visited four leading research teams in three Chinese cities (Beijing, Tianjin and Hefei). The main aims of the visits were to understand perspectives in China on synthetic biology, to identify core themes among its scientific community, and to address questions such as ‘how did synthetic biology emerge in China?'', ‘what are the current funding conditions?'', ‘how is synthetic biology generally perceived?'' and ‘how is it regulated?''. Initial findings seem to indicate that the emergence of synthetic biology in China has been a bottom-up construction of a new scientific framework; one that is more dynamic and comprises more options than existing national or international research and development (R&D) strategies. Such findings might contribute to Western knowledge of Chinese R&D, but could also expose European and US policy-makers to alternative forms and patterns of research governance that have emerged from a grass-roots level.…the process of developing a framework is at least as important to research governance as the big question it might eventually addressA dominant narrative among the scientists interviewed is the prospect of a ‘big-question'' strategy to promote synthetic-biology research in China. This framework is at a consultation stage and key questions are still being discussed. Yet, fieldwork indicates that the process of developing a framework is at least as important to research governance as the big question it might eventually address. According to several interviewees, this approach aims to organize dispersed national R&D resources into one grand project that is essential to the technical development of the field, preferably focusing on an industry-related theme that is economically appealling to the Chinese public.Chinese scientists have a pragmatic vision for research; thinking of science in terms of its ‘instrumentality'' has long been regarded as characteristic of modern China (Schneider, 2003). However, for a country in which the scientific community is sometimes described as an “uncoordinated ‘bunch of loose ends''” (Cyranoski, 2001) “with limited synergies between them” (OECD, 2007), the envisaged big-question approach implies profound structural and organizational changes. Structurally, the approach proposes that the foundational (industry-related) research questions branch out into various streams of supporting research and more specific short-term research topics. Within such a framework, a variety of Chinese universities and research institutions can be recruited and coordinated at different levels towards solving the big question.It is important to note that although this big-question strategy is at a consultation stage and supervised by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), the idea itself has emerged in a bottom-up manner. One academic who is involved in the ongoing ministerial consultation recounted that, “It [the big-question approach] was initially conversations among we scientists over the past couple of years. We saw this as an alternative way to keep up with international development and possibly lead to some scientific breakthrough. But we are happy to see that the Ministry is excited and wants to support such an idea as well.” As many technicalities remain to be addressed, there is no clear time-frame yet for when the project will be launched. Yet, this nationwide cooperation among scientists with an emerging commitment from MOST seems to be largely welcomed by researchers. Some interviewees described the excitement it generated among the Chinese scientific community as comparable with the establishment of “a new ‘moon-landing'' project”.Of greater significance than the time-frame is the development process that led to this proposition. On the one hand, the emergence of synthetic biology in China has a cosmopolitan feel: cross-border initiatives such as international student competitions, transnational funding opportunities and social debates in Western countries—for instance, about biosafety—all have an important role. On the other hand, the development of synthetic biology in China has some national particularities. Factors including geographical proximity, language, collegial familiarity and shared interests in economic development have all attracted Chinese scientists to the national strategy, to keep up with their international peers. Thus, to some extent, the development of synthetic biology in China is an advance not only in the material synthesis of the ‘cosmos''—the physical world—but also in the social synthesis of aligning national R&D resources and actors with the global scientific community.To comprehend how Chinese scientists have used national particularities and global research trends as mutually constructive influences, and to identify the implications of this for governance, this essay examines the emergence of synthetic biology in China from three perspectives: its initial activities, the evolution of funding opportunities, and the ongoing debates about research governance.China''s involvement in synthetic biology was largely promoted by the participation of students in the International Genetically Engineered Machine (iGEM) competition, an international contest for undergraduates initiated by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the USA. Before the iGEM training workshop that was hosted by Tianjin University in the Spring of 2007, there were no research records and only two literature reviews on synthetic biology in Chinese scientific databases (Zhao & Wang, 2007). According to Chunting Zhang of Tianjin University—a leading figure in the promotion of synthetic biology in China—it was during these workshops that Chinese research institutions joined their efforts for the first time (Zhang, 2008). From the outset, the organization of the workshop had a national focus, while it engaged with international networks. Synthetic biologists, including Drew Endy from MIT and Christina Smolke from Stanford University, USA, were invited. Later that year, another training camp designed for iGEM tutors was organized in Tianjin and included delegates from Australia and Japan (Zhang, 2008).Through years of organizing iGEM-related conferences and workshops, Chinese universities have strengthened their presence at this international competition; in 2007, four teams from China participated. During the 2010 competition, 11 teams from nine universities in six provinces/municipalities took part. Meanwhile, recruiting, training and supervising iGEM teams has become an important institutional programme at an increasing number of universities.…training for iGEM has grown beyond winning the student awards and become a key component of exchanges between Chinese researchers and the international communityIt might be easy to interpret the enthusiasm for the iGEM as a passion for winning gold medals, as is conventionally the case with other international scientific competitions. This could be one motive for participating. Yet, training for iGEM has grown beyond winning the student awards and has become a key component of exchanges between Chinese researchers and the international community (Ding, 2010). Many of the Chinese scientists interviewed recounted the way in which their initial involvement in synthetic biology overlapped with their tutoring of iGEM teams. One associate professor at Tianjin University, who wrote the first undergraduate textbook on synthetic biology in China, half-jokingly said, “I mainly learnt [synthetic biology] through tutoring new iGEM teams every year.”Participation in such contests has not only helped to popularize synthetic biology in China, but has also influenced local research culture. One example of this is that the iGEM competition uses standard biological parts (BioBricks), and new BioBricks are submitted to an open registry for future sharing. A corresponding celebration of open-source can also be traced to within the Chinese synthetic-biology community. In contrast to the conventional perception that the Chinese scientific sector consists of a “very large number of ‘innovative islands''” (OECD, 2007; Zhang, 2010), communication between domestic teams is quite active. In addition to the formally organized national training camps and conferences, students themselves organize a nationwide, student-only workshop at which to informally test their ideas.More interestingly, when the author asked one team whether there are any plans to set up a ‘national bank'' for hosting designs from Chinese iGEM teams, in order to benefit domestic teams, both the tutor and team members thought this proposal a bit “strange”. The team leader responded, “But why? There is no need. With BioBricks, we can get any parts we want quite easily. Plus, it directly connects us with all the data produced by iGEM teams around the world, let alone in China. A national bank would just be a small-scale duplicate.”From the beginning, interest in the development of synthetic biology in China has been focused on collective efforts within and across national borders. In contrast to conventional critiques on the Chinese scientific community''s “inclination toward competition and secrecy, rather than openness” (Solo & Pressberg, 2007; OECD, 2007; Zhang, 2010), there seems to be a new outlook emerging from the participation of Chinese universities in the iGEM contest. Of course, that is not to say that the BioBricks model is without problems (Rai & Boyle, 2007), or to exclude inputs from other institutional channels. Yet, continuous grass-roots exchanges, such as the undergraduate-level competition, might be as instrumental as formal protocols in shaping research culture. The indifference of Chinese scientists to a ‘national bank'' seems to suggest that the distinction between the ‘national'' and ‘international'' scientific communities has become blurred, if not insignificant.However, frequent cross-institutional exchanges and the domestic organization of iGEM workshops seem to have nurtured the development of a national synthetic-biology community in China, in which grass-roots scientists are comfortable relying on institutions with a cosmopolitan character—such as the BioBricks Foundation—to facilitate local research. To some extent, one could argue that in the eyes of Chinese scientists, national and international resources are one accessible global pool. This grass-roots interest in incorporating local and global advantages is not limited to student training and education, but also exhibited in evolving funding and regulatory debates.In the development of research funding for synthetic biology, a similar bottom-up consolidation of national and global resources can also be observed. As noted earlier, synthetic-biology research in China is in its infancy. A popular view is that China has the potential to lead this field, as it has strong support from related disciplines. In terms of genome sequencing, DNA synthesis, genetic engineering, systems biology and bioinformatics, China is “almost at the same level as developed countries” (Pan, 2008), but synthetic-biology research has only been carried out “sporadically” (Pan, 2008; Huang, 2009). There are few nationally funded projects and there is no discernible industrial involvement (Yang, 2010). Most existing synthetic-biology research is led by universities or institutions that are affiliated with the Chinese Academy of Science (CAS). As one CAS academic commented, “there are many Chinese scientists who are keen on conducting synthetic-biology research. But no substantial research has been launched nor has long-term investment been committed.”The initial undertaking of academic research on synthetic biology in China has therefore benefited from transnational initiatives. The first synthetic-biology project in China, launched in October 2006, was part of the ‘Programmable Bacteria Catalyzing Research'' (PROBACTYS) project, funded by the Sixth Framework Programme of the European Union (Yang, 2010). A year later, another cross-border collaborative effort led to the establishment of the first synthetic-biology centre in China: the Edinburgh University–Tianjing University Joint Research Centre for Systems Biology and Synthetic Biology (Zhang, 2008).There is also a comparable commitment to national research coordination. A year after China''s first participation in iGEM, the 2008 Xiangshan conference focused on domestic progress. From 2007 to 2009, only five projects in China received national funding, all of which came from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC). This funding totalled ¥1,330,000 (approximately £133,000; www.nsfc.org), which is low in comparison to the £891,000 funding that was given in the UK for seven Networks in Synthetic Biology in 2007 alone (www.bbsrc.ac.uk).One of the primary challenges in obtaining funding identified by the interviewees is that, as an emerging science, synthetic biology is not yet appreciated by Chinese funding agencies. After the Xiangshan conference, the CAS invited scientists to a series of conferences in late 2009. According to the interviewees, one of the main outcomes was the founding of a ‘China Synthetic Biology Coordination Group''; an informal association of around 30 conference delegates from various research institutions. This group formulated a ‘regulatory suggestion'' that they submitted to MOST, which stated the necessity and implications of supporting synthetic-biology research. In addition, leading scientists such as Chunting Zhang and Huanming Yang—President of the Beijing Genomic Institute (BGI), who co-chaired the Beijing Institutes of Life Science (BILS) conferences—have been active in communicating with government institutions. The initial results of this can be seen in the MOST 2010 Application Guidelines for the National Basic Research Program, in which synthetic biology was included for the first time, among ‘key supporting areas'' (MOST, 2010). Meanwhile, in 2010, NSFC allocated ¥1,500,000 (approximately £150,000) to synthetic-biology research, which is more than the total funding the area had received in the past three years.The search for funding further demonstrates the dynamics between national and transnational resources. Chinese R&D initiatives have to deal with the fact that scientific venture-capital and non-governmental research charities are underdeveloped in China. In contrast to the EU or the USA, government institutions in China, such as the NSFC and MOST, are the main and sometimes only domestic sources of funding. Yet, transnational funding opportunities facilitate the development of synthetic biology by alleviating local structural and financial constraints, and further integrate the Chinese scientific community into international research.This is not a linear ‘going-global'' process; it is important for Chinese scientists to secure and promote national and regional support. In addition, this alignment of national funding schemes with global research progress is similar to the iGEM experience, as it is being initiated through informal bottom-up associations between scientists, rather than by top-down institutional channels.As more institutions have joined iGEM training camps and participated in related conferences, a shared interest among the Chinese scientific community in developing synthetic biology has become visible. In late 2009, at the conference that founded the informal ‘coordination group'', the proposition of integrating national expertise through a big-question approach emerged. According to one professor in Beijing—who was a key participant in the discussion at the time—this proposition of a nationwide synergy was not so much about ‘national pride'' or an aim to develop a ‘Chinese'' synthetic biology, it was about research practicality. She explained, “synthetic biology is at the convergence of many disciplines, computer modelling, nano-technology, bioengineering, genomic research etc. Individual researchers like me can only operate on part of the production chain. But I myself would like to see where my findings would fit in a bigger picture as well. It just makes sense for a country the size of China to set up some collective and coordinated framework so as to seek scientific breakthrough.”From the first participation in the iGEM contest to the later exploration of funding opportunities and collective research plans, scientists have been keen to invite and incorporate domestic and international resources, to keep up with global research. Yet, there are still regulatory challenges to be met.…with little social discontent and no imminent public threat, synthetic biology in China could be carried out in a ‘research-as-usual'' mannerThe reputation of “the ‘wild East'' of biology” (Dennis, 2002) is associated with China'' previous inattention to ethical concerns about the life sciences, especially in embryonic-stem-cell research. Similarly, synthetic biology creates few social concerns in China. Public debate is minimal and most media coverage has been positive. Synthetic biology is depicted as “a core in the fourth wave of scientific development” (Pan, 2008) or “another scientific revolution” (Huang, 2009). Whilst recognizing its possible risks, mainstream media believe that “more people would be attracted to doing good while making a profit than doing evil” (Fang & He, 2010). In addition, biosecurity and biosafety training in China are at an early stage, with few mandatory courses for students (Barr & Zhang, 2010). The four leading synthetic-biology teams I visited regarded the general biosafety regulations that apply to microbiology laboratories as sufficient for synthetic biology. In short, with little social discontent and no imminent public threat, synthetic biology in China could be carried out in a ‘research-as-usual'' manner.Yet, fieldwork suggests that, in contrast to this previous insensitivity to global ethical concerns, the synthetic-biology community in China has taken a more proactive approach to engaging with international debates. It is important to note that there are still no synthetic-biology-specific administrative guidelines or professional codes of conduct in China. However, Chinese stakeholders participate in building a ‘mutual inclusiveness'' between global and domestic discussions.One of the most recent examples of this is a national conference about the ethical and biosafety implications of synthetic biology, which was jointly hosted by the China Association for Science and Technology, the Chinese Society of Biotechnology and the Beijing Institutes of Life Science CAS, in Suzhou in June 2010. The discussion was open to the mainstream media. The debate was not simply a recapitulation of Western worries, such as playing god, potential dual-use or ecological containment. It also focused on the particular concerns of developing countries about how to avoid further widening the developmental gap with advanced countries (Liu, 2010).In addition to general discussions, there are also sustained transnational communications. For example, one of the first three projects funded by the NSFC was a three-year collaboration on biosafety and risk-assessment frameworks between the Institute of Botany at CAS and the Austrian Organization for International Dialogue and Conflict Management (IDC).Chinese scientists are also keen to increase their involvement in the formulation of international regulations. The CAS and the Chinese Academy of Engineering are engaged with their peer institutions in the UK and the USA to “design more robust frameworks for oversight, intellectual property and international cooperation” (Royal Society, 2009). It is too early to tell what influence China will achieve in this field. Yet, the changing image of the country from an unconcerned wild East to a partner in lively discussions signals a new dynamic in the global development of synthetic biology.Student contests, funding programmes, joint research centres and coordination groups are only a few of the means by which scientists can drive synthetic biology forward in ChinaFrom self-organized participation in iGEM to bottom-up funding and governance initiatives, two features are repeatedly exhibited in the emergence of synthetic biology in China: global resources and international perspectives complement national interests; and the national and cosmopolitan research strengths are mostly instigated at the grass-roots level. During the process of introducing, developing and reflecting on synthetic biology, many formal or informal, provisional or long-term alliances have been established from the bottom up. Student contests, funding programmes, joint research centres and coordination groups are only a few of the means by which scientists can drive synthetic biology forward in China.However, the inputs of different social actors has not led to disintegration of the field into an array of individualized pursuits, but has transformed it into collective synergies, or the big-question approach. Underlying the diverse efforts of Chinese scientists is a sense of ‘inclusiveness'', or the idea of bringing together previously detached research expertise. Thus, the big-question strategy cannot be interpreted as just another nationally organized agenda in response to global scientific advancements. Instead, it represents a more intricate development path corresponding to how contemporary research evolves on the ground.In comparison to the increasingly visible grass-roots efforts, the role of the Chinese government seems relatively small at this stageIn comparison to the increasingly visible grass-roots efforts, the role of the Chinese government seems relatively small at this stage. Government input—such as the potential stewardship of the MOST in directing a big-question approach or long-term funding—remain important; the scientists who were interviewed expend a great deal of effort to attract governmental participation. Yet, China'' experience highlights that the key to comprehending regional scientific capacity lies not so much in what the government can do, but rather in what is taking place in laboratories. It is important to remember that Chinese iGEM victories, collaborative synthetic-biology projects and ethical discussions all took place before the government became involved. Thus, to appreciate fully the dynamics of an emerging science, it might be necessary to focus on what is formulated from the bottom up.The experience of China in synthetic biology demonstrates the power of grass-roots, cross-border engagement to promote contemporary researchThe experience of China in synthetic biology demonstrates the power of grass-roots, cross-border engagement to promote contemporary research. More specifically, it is a result of the commitment of Chinese scientists to incorporating national and international resources, actors and social concerns. For practical reasons, the national organization of research, such as through the big-question approach, might still have an important role. However, synthetic biology might be not only a mosaic of national agendas, but also shaped by transnational activities and scientific resources. What Chinese scientists will collectively achieve remains to be seen. Yet, the emergence of synthetic biology in China might be indicative of a new paradigm for how research practices can be introduced, normalized and regulated.     

Human welfare and its connection to nature: What have we learned from crop pollination studies?

Human welfare depends on the function of natural systems. This idea is paradigmatic to ecologists and has been the theme of a growing branch of applied ecology. I examine the narrative of human dependence on nature by considering the literature on crop pollination by animals and its importance for food production. Making the connections between human welfare and natural systems is seen as a way to better motivate society to make better decisions, but the debate around crop pollination has been surprisingly contentious. There have been confusing messages, disagreements on the facts, an unfortunate focus on dire projections for the future and a lesser focus on solutions. Most of these problems arise not from poor science but instead from poor communication of complex ideas and differences in perspective, such as the deep disciplinary gap between agricultural scientists and ecologists. By understanding these problems, we can improve the way we do our science and communicate our ideas. I argue that ecologists should continue to communicate the principle that human welfare depends on the function of natural systems and discuss how we can do so in a way that is more genuinely connected to society's needs, such as growing food. If we succeed, we will be changing an intellectually interesting conversation into a dialogue that influences how society interacts with nature.     

Needles in a haystack. Genomic tools have become powerful tools for conservation biologists to monitor the spread of invasive species

Early detection and monitoring are key to controlling invasive species. Genomics and new sequencing technologies are now providing powerful new tools to track and combat relentless pestsIn the late 1960s, an Air France pilot and his family took a holiday in swampy Louisiana in the southeastern USA and were intrigued by the giant bullfrogs, Rana catesbeiana. The family introduced a dozen of the animals to a pond in the Bordeaux region of southwestern France, inadvertently starting a major invasion that affected thousands of lakes and creeks with devastating effects on the native fauna. “They eat everything and if you go to a pond where there are bullfrogs, there are no other amphibians [...] because bullfrogs prey on other animals or because they are spreading a disease—chytridiomycosis—that is absent from some European areas,” said conservation biologist Francesco Ficetola of the Department of Environmental Sciences at the University of Milano–Bicocca in Italy. “There was nothing like them in Europe,” he added.As part of his postdoctoral research, Ficetola studied the frog invasion in Europe at the Université de Savoie and the University of Grenoble in France. To monitor their distribution, he pioneered the use of environmental DNA (eDNA) to detect R. catesbeiana without observing the animals themselves. He and his colleagues took water samples, extracted eDNA and used primers monomorphic to nearly 400 bullfrog samples to demonstrate their presence in wetlands, even in low densities.“The significance was that we were able to detect the presence of the species without seeing or hearing the species,” Ficetola said. The eDNA technique has further potential: “As the environment can retain the molecular imprint of inhabiting species, our approach allows the reliable detection of secretive organisms in wetlands without direct observation. Combined with massive sequencing and the development of DNA barcodes that enable species identification, this approach opens new perspectives for the assessment of current biodiversity from environmental samples” (Ficetola et al, 2008)....molecular and genomic tools to identify, monitor and control invasive species have become increasingly sophisticated during the past five years...According to David Lodge, a biologist at the University of Notre Dame (South Bend, IN, USA), molecular and genomic tools to identify, monitor and control invasive species have become increasingly sophisticated during the past five years and are especially valuable in aquatic environments. “Hair traps and scat sampling have been used for mammals for a long time. You don''t have to catch the lynx, for example. You just put a piece of wire or tape on a trail and you get a little bit of hair and then you do genetic analysis to figure out which species it is. With enough sampling and genetic sequencing, you could even estimate the number of individuals in a population,” Lodge explained. Technological advances now make it possible to apply this technique to aquatic ecosystems to track everything from whales down to the smallest organisms.Most invasive species eventually find their ecological niche among the natives, but some can turn into pests, particularly if the new environment does not pose any threats for them such as predators or diseases. The American bullfrog in Europe, the cane toad, Bufo marinus, in Australia, or the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, in the Great Lakes have all wreaked havoc on the environment and have had an impact on commercial interests. In addition to standard control measures—such as killing animals or halting their further migration with barriers—scientists have also explored biological methods of tracking and controlling invasive species, but it is only in the past few years that these have become efficient enough to find the proverbial needle in a haystack.In the USA, these genomic tools are being applied to track Asian carp species in the Mississippi, its tributary Illinois River and the Great LakesIn the USA, these genomic tools are being applied to track Asian carp species in the Mississippi, its tributary Illinois river and the Great Lakes. The large, jumping carp have negative effects on the native fish and are even able to knock down boaters (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yS7zkTnQVaM). Christopher Dionigi, assistant director for National Policy and Programs of the US National Invasive Species Council (Washington, DC, USA), a cooperative of federal agencies created in 1999, said, “They''re large, they do jump out of the water, they can achieve very high densities in specific areas, and [have] impacted a lot of native fisheries, and also game fish.” The silver and bighead carp are harvesting phytoplankton and zooplankton, which are dietary mainstays for many other species. Lodge described the carp as “aquatic cows” that outgrow their predators and compete with other species for food....Lodge and his colleagues are using eDNA to tackle a raging political issue in the American Midwest: whether Asian carp are invading Lake Michigan around Chicago...Inspired by Ficetola''s eDNA work and his own research to develop detection tools for species in the ballast water of ships, Lodge and his colleagues are using eDNA to tackle a raging political issue in the American Midwest: whether Asian carp are invading Lake Michigan around Chicago—and potentially the rest of the Great Lakes—from the Mississippi River.Neighbouring states, led by Michigan, have taken the US Army Corps of Engineers and the Chicago Metropolitan Water Reclamation District to court to get Chicago to close locks on the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, which was built to divert Chicago''s sewage away from Lake Michigan into the Mississippi instead. The main dispute is whether the canal allows the Asian carp to invade Lake Michigan.Since 2009, Lodge''s group has been conducting a risk assessment for the Army Corps to determine whether carp and other invasive species are able to move through the canal into the Great Lakes. The team collected more than 1,000 surface water samples, extracted DNA and used markers specific for Hypophthalmichthys nobilis and H. molitrix (Jerde et al, 2011). Subsequently, commercial fishermen caught an adult bighead carp within 13 km of Lake Michigan, only 4 km upstream from the nearest positive eDNA detection.“There has been a lot of hand-wringing about where the carp are. We wanted to see if we could detect the presence of Asian carp without even seeing them,” Lodge explained. “The most important thing we found (using eDNA) was DNA of both species in many places on the lake side of the electric barriers that the Army Corps of Engineers maintains in the canal [to keep the carp out of the lake]”....eDNA can help in early detection of invasive species, which is key to effective management on the basis of ''early detection, rapid response''He added that eDNA can help in early detection of invasive species, which is key to effective management on the basis of ''early detection, rapid response''. “Because eDNA evidence indicates that at least silver carp have entered Lake Michigan, surveillance is warranted within Great Lakes rivers that may be colonized and could support successful spawning,” Lodge said. “The eDNA method appears well-suited to rapid surveys across the large spatial scale that will be required in the Great Lakes.” He added that it might be possible to poison the carp when they aggregate to spawn.Nathan Bott, a molecular-diagnostic researcher at the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI; Henley Beach, SA, Australia), is adapting a technique to extract DNA from soil to detect invasive species in the ballasts of ships. This approach involves identifying DNA from pests, some of which have the potential to destroy farmed or fished mussel, scallop and abalone. Bott has been working on assays for the Asian bag mussel, Musculista senhousia, northern Pacific sea star, Asterias amurensis, and European fan worm, Sabella spallanzanii.He said SARDI is in the process of purchasing a 454 sequencer to verify positive samples. “The idea is if we are getting positives in the ports, and particularly if the species in question is considered a significant threat, the authorities would want to conduct further surveys.” Bott explained that quantitative PCR can screen thousands of samples per day, and the 454 sequencer would be used to confirm the positives to deliver a rapid result. “If we can carry out a quick and relatively inexpensive experiment on the eDNA result with quantitative PCR using our 454, then we can save everyone a lot of time and money, and rather than concentrating on confirming the presence of the pest, a control strategy can be instigated.”Once an invasive species is identified, what can de done to remove it? The French took to shooting and trapping American bullfrogs, removing eggs and tadpoles and draining wetlands. The Americans built electrical fences to try to stop the Asian carp from entering the Great Lakes. The state of Illinois has even supported a fishing operation to catch Asian carp, shipping the fillets to China—a scheme that could potentially lead to perverse incentives to introduce more fish....biologists are refining an old concept for species control that disrupts the ratio of sexes in order to control or even kill off invasive speciesMeanwhile, biologists are refining an old concept for species control that disrupts the ratio of sexes in order to control or even kill off invasive species. The basic idea—creating sterile males, mainly by using irradiation, and releasing them by the millions—is not new. Sterile males compete with wild males for the females but do not produce offspring. Repeated introductions of these populations can control or even wipe out whole populations. Since its first application in the 1950s, there have been several success stories, including eradication of the screw-worm fly (Cochliomyia hominivorax) in North America and control of several species of fruit flies.In recent years, the concept has been improved by using molecular and genetic approaches. Ron Thresher, a marine ecologist who researches invasive species for the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, said that common carp—bottom-feeders that foul water and dig up plants—were causing problems Down Under. However, he said that stakeholders, such as public and commercial fishing interests, resist biological controls—introducing predators, parasites or genetically modified viruses to make carp sterile—because these could have unintended consequences.As a result, his group has begun exploring another approach, while gently steering away from the transgenic controversies. “We''ve been careful to make it clear to people that we''re using genetic-modification technology but it''s not transgenic,” he said. “What we''re doing is taking a carp''s native genes and basically rearranging them a little bit. So it''s using wholly native fish genes at this point. This makes a large difference in terms of public acceptability.”Thresher said his group has been developing techniques that control gene activity with the goal of causing sterility in females or causing females to change sex. The approach has been proven in lab studies in zebra fish and is now being applied to carp. He estimates that it would take 50 years to eliminate the carp with this approach. “It''s generation and time dependent,” he said.Like Thresher, John Teem, a molecular biologist at the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (Tallahassee, FL, USA), is tinkering with fish genetics and hormones to develop a Trojan fish with two Y chromosomes that would cause a population to collapse over time.Normally, a female has two X chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome; it is the Y chromosome that determines ''maleness''. Teem said his strategy would create female fish with two Y chromosomes. This fish, when introduced into a target invasive population, will begin to mate with normal males (XY) producing only male progeny. Half of those males will be YY males that will themselves mate and produce only male progeny.“We''re trying to change the sex ratio of the population so that there are more males and fewer females at each generation. By flooding the system with Y chromosomes, more and more male fish are produced,” Teem explained. “Ultimately, the population collapses when there are no more females.” For a fish with a one-year mating cycle, he estimated that it would take 70 years to eradicate a population.Production of YY females involves selective breeding of fish that have been sex-reversed by hormone treatment as juveniles. The process uses techniques that are commonly employed in the aquaculture industry and does not rely on recombinant DNA technology. Teem said the approach could work on carp or other fish with an XY-chromosome sex determination, but he has been focusing on tilapia, which was introduced to control invasive aquatic plants in Florida but has now become a pest. “They''re very aggressive when they''re defending their nest,” he said. “They will attack other fish. If the native fish need that same territory to reproduce, tilapia can exclude them from that resource and negatively impact their reproduction.”...the idea of a tricorder has been around for decades and would be a useful tool to identify and monitor invasive species as well as any other plants and animalsUltimately, however, early detection and thorough monitoring is the best defence against invasions. Daniel Janzen, an evolutionary biologist from the University of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, PA, USA), is working on a gadget that could enable the development of a dense surveillance system for invasive pests, using an army of volunteers. His tool resembles a species-level ''tricorder'', similar to that from the sci-fi franchise Star Trek, in which a character would use the portable device to detect life-forms and resources on an alien planet. Janzen said the idea of a tricorder has been around for decades and would be a useful tool to identify and monitor invasive species as well as any other plants and animals.Since 1978, Janzen has been studying moth and butterfly caterpillars in the northwestern corner of Costa Rica. By 2003, he had built a database of 3,000 species out of an estimated 12,500 in this region. That year, he connected with geneticist Paul Hebert, a researcher from the University of Guelph in Canada and inventor of the ''DNA-barcoding'' technique that uses short snippets of mitochondrial DNA to identify species. Their goal is to develop a hand-held personal reader the size and cost of a pocket comb. Janzen and Herbert envision that their ''barcorders'' would be used by farmers, game wardens, school children or anyone else.“I can''t think of any better way for anybody, everybody out there to be telling you whether invasive species are here, there and otherwise, than to have this device in their back pocket,” Janzen said. “How many farmers and other outdoors people are there in North America? If every one of them had a barcorder and every time he saw a weird weed growing in his wheat fields, he just pulled a little chip off a leaf and stuck it in his barcorder that would tell the USDA or some other central agency, ''Ah! This plant grows there.''”Bott, in South Australia, agreed that such devices would be a great help to monitor the spread of invasive species. “We can''t be everywhere at once sampling all these different areas. But having the ability to actually go down and test them on site would, in the future, really increase the throughput of our testing and make it a lot easier and possibly less expensive to test a wide range of species. It''s not a fantasy. It''s achievable.”