Patterns of importin-α expression during Drosophila spermatogenesis

Importin-α proteins do not only mediate the nuclear import of karyophilic proteins but also regulate spindle assembly during mitosis and the assembly of ring canals during Drosophila oogenesis. Three importin-α genes are present in the genome of Drosophila. To gain further insights into their function we analysed their expression during spermatogenesis by using antibodies raised against each of the three Importin-α proteins identified in Drosophila, namely, Imp-α1, -α2, and -α3. We found that each Imp-α is expressed during a specific and limited period of spermatogenesis. Strong expression of Imp-α2 takes place in spermatogonial cells, persists in spermatocytes, and lasts up to the completion of meiosis. In growing spermatocytes, the intracellular localisation of Imp-α2 appears to be dependent upon the rate of cell growth. In pupal testes Imp-α2 is essentially present in the spermatocyte nucleus but is localised in the cytoplasm of spermatocytes from adult testes. Both Imp-α1 and -α3 expression initiates at the beginning of meiosis and ends during spermatid differentiation. Imp-α1 expression extends up to the onset of the elongation phase, whereas that of Imp-α3 persists up to the completion of nuclear condensation when the spermatids become individualised. During meiosis Imp-α1 and -α3 are dispersed in the karyoplasm where they are partially associated with the nuclear spindle, albeit not with the asters. At telophase they aggregate around the chromatin. During sperm head differentiation, both Imp-α1 and -α3 are nuclear. These data indicate that each Imp-α protein carries during Drosophila spermatogenesis distinct, albeit overlapping, functions that may involve nuclear import of proteins, microtubule organisation, and other yet unknown processes.     

Importin-alpha3 is required at multiple stages of Drosophila development and has a role in the completion of oogenesis

The Drosophila importin-alpha3 gene was isolated through its interaction with the large subunit of the DNA polymerase alpha in a two-hybrid screen. The predicted protein sequence of Importin-alpha3 is 65-66% identical to those of the human and mouse importin-alpha3 and alpha4 and 42.7% identical to that of Importin-alpha2 (Oho31/Pendulin), the previously reported Drosophila homologue. Both Importin-alpha3 and Importin-alpha2 interact with similar subsets of proteins in vitro, one of which is Ketel, the importin-beta homologue of Drosophila. importin-alpha3 is an essential gene, whose encoded protein is expressed throughout development. During early embryogenesis, Importin-alpha3 accumulates at the nuclear membrane of cleavage nuclei, whereas after blastoderm formation it is characteristically found within the interphase nuclei. Nuclear localisation is seen in several tissues throughout subsequent development. During oogenesis its concentration within the nurse cell nuclei increases during stages 7-10, concomitant with a decline in levels in the oocyte nucleus. Mutation of importin-alpha3 results in lethality throughout pupal development. Surviving females are sterile and show arrest of oogenesis at stages 7-10. Thus, Importin-alpha3-mediated nuclear transport is essential for completion of oogenesis and becomes limiting during pupal development. Since they have different expression patterns and subcellular localisation profiles, we suggest that the two importin-alpha homologues are not redundant in the context of normal Drosophila development.     

Eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-3 is essential for meiotic chromosome segregation, cytokinesis and male fertility in Drosophila

Gene expression is translationally regulated during many cellular and developmental processes. Translation can be modulated by affecting the recruitment of mRNAs to the ribosome, which involves recognition of the 5' cap structure by the cap-binding protein eIF4E. Drosophila has several genes encoding eIF4E-related proteins, but the biological role of most of them remains unknown. Here, we report that Drosophila eIF4E-3 is required specifically during spermatogenesis. Males lacking eIF4E-3 are sterile, showing defects in meiotic chromosome segregation, cytokinesis, nuclear shaping and individualization. We show that eIF4E-3 physically interacts with both eIF4G and eIF4G-2, the latter being a factor crucial for spermatocyte meiosis. In eIF4E-3 mutant testes, many proteins are present at different levels than in wild type, suggesting widespread effects on translation. Our results imply that eIF4E-3 forms specific eIF4F complexes that are essential for spermatogenesis.     

Developmental control of sumoylation pathway proteins in mouse male germ cells

Protein sumoylation regulates a variety of nuclear functions and has been postulated to be involved in meiotic chromosome dynamics as well as other processes of spermatogenesis. Here, the expression and distribution of sumoylation pathway genes and proteins were determined in mouse male germ cells, with a particular emphasis on prophase I of meiosis. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that SUMO1, SUMO2/3 and UBE2I (also known as UBC9) were localized to the XY body in pachytene and diplotene spermatocytes, while only SUMO2/3 and UBE2I were detected near centromeres in metaphase I spermatocytes. Quantitative RT-PCR and Western blotting were used to examine the expression of sumoylation pathway genes and proteins in enriched preparations of leptotene/zygotene spermatocytes, prepubertal and adult pachytene spermatocytes, as well as round spermatids. Two general expression profiles emerged from these data. The first profile, where expression was more prominent during meiosis, identified sumoylation pathway participants that could be involved in meiotic chromosome dynamics. The second profile, elevated expression in post-meiotic spermatids, suggested proteins that could be involved in spermiogenesis-related sumoylation events. In addition to revealing differential expression of protein sumoylation mediators, which suggests differential functioning, these data demonstrate the dynamic nature of SUMO metabolism during spermatogenesis.     

Roles for Drp1, a dynamin-related protein, and milton, a kinesin-associated protein, in mitochondrial segregation, unfurling and elongation during Drosophila spermatogenesis

Mitochondria undergo dramatic rearrangement during Drosophila spermatogenesis. In wild type testes, the many small mitochondria present in pre-meiotic spermatocytes later aggregate, fuse, and interwrap in post-meiotic haploid spermatids to form the spherical Nebenkern, whose two giant mitochondrial compartments later unfurl and elongate beside the growing flagellar axoneme. Drp1 encodes a dynamin-related protein whose homologs in many organisms mediate mitochondrial fission and whose Drosophila homolog is known to govern mitochondrial morphology in neurons. The milton gene encodes an adaptor protein that links mitochondria with kinesin and that is required for mitochondrial transport in Drosophila neurons. To determine the roles of Drp1 and Milton in spermatogenesis, we used the FLP-FRT mitotic recombination system to generate spermatocytes homozygous for mutations in either gene in an otherwise heterozygous background. We found that absence of Drp1 leads to abnormal clustering of mitochondria in mature primary spermatocytes and aberrant unfurling of the mitochondrial derivatives in early Drp1 spermatids undergoing axonemal elongation. In milton spermatocytes, mitochondria are distributed normally; however, after meiosis, the Nebenkern is not strongly anchored to the nucleus, and the mitochondrial derivatives do not elongate properly. Our work defines specific functions for Drp1 and Milton in the anchoring, unfurling, and elongation of mitochondria during sperm formation.     

Overexpression of ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase L1 arrests spermatogenesis in transgenic mice

Ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase 1 (UCH-L1) can be detected in mouse testicular germ cells, mainly spermatogonia and somatic Sertoli cells, but its physiological role is unknown. We show that transgenic (Tg) mice overexpressing EF1alpha promoter-driven UCH-L1 in the testis are sterile due to a block during spermatogenesis at an early stage (pachytene) of meiosis. Interestingly, almost all spermatogonia and Sertoli cells expressing excess UCH-L1, but little PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen), showed no morphological signs of apoptosis or TUNEL-positive staining. Rather, germ cell apoptosis was mainly detected in primary spermatocytes having weak or negative UCH-L1 expression but strong PCNA expression. These data suggest that overexpression of UCH-L1 affects spermatogenesis during meiosis and, in particular, induces apoptosis in primary spermatocytes. In addition to results of caspases-3 upregulation and Bcl-2 downregulation, excess UCH-L1 influenced the distribution of PCNA, suggesting a specific role for UCH-L1 in the processes of mitotic proliferation and differentiation of spermatogonial stem cells during spermatogenesis.     

Biosynthesis of specific histones during meiotic prophase of mouse spermatogenesis

A kinetics study has demonstrated histone synthesis occurring at two distinct phases during meiotic prophase of mouse spermatogenesis. These two periods have been delineated by quantifying the synthesis of DNA and basic nuclear proteins in spermatogenic cells at discrete intervals following the intratesticular injection of [3H] thymidine and [14C] arginine, respectively. One phase of histone synthesis occurs coincident with DNA synthesis in preleptotene spermatocytes. By contrast, a second phase of histone synthesis occurs during midprophase of meiosis, independent of semiconservative DNA synthesis. The [14C] arginine incorporated into the basic nuclear proteins of pachytene spermatocytes is conserved during spermiogenesis and then subsequently discarded within the residual bodies, which are formed during late spermiogenesis. Fluorographic analyses of isotopically labeled basic nuclear proteins in pachytene spermatocytes has shown that only the somatic complement of histones are synthesized during the preleptotene period, whereas the second phase involves the synthesis of proteins H1t, H2S, and "A". In addition, several nonhistone basic nuclear proteins are synthesized concomitant with the germ cell-specific histones. Thus, the data clearly demonstrate that pachytene spermatocytes actively synthesize a number of novel chromatin-associated polypeptides.     

The POLO kinase is required at multiple stages during spermatogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster

The polo gene of Drosophila melanogaster is the founding member of the polo-like kinase family which is conserved among eukaryotes. POLO has been implicated in the organisation and function of the mitotic apparatus. Furthermore, POLO has been shown to be required for normal spermatogenesis. To characterize further the role of POLO in spermatogenesis, polo mutants were analysed by immunostaining with specific antibodies and phase contrast microscopy. Immunofluorescence shows that POLO localises to the centrosomes, the centromere/kinetochore and the spindle midzone. The meiotic phenotype of various mutant allelic combinations was also studied in detail. Observation of mutant live testes indicates cytological abnormalities in all meiotic cell types, including variable DNA content and multipolar spindles. Primary spermatocytes in polo mutant testes contain an abnormal DNA content, suggesting failure of chromosome segregation during gonial division. Immunostaining of polo mutant cells with α-tubulin shows several abnormalities of the meiotic spindle, including a significantly reduced central spindle. Our results suggest that polo has multiple functions during spermatogenesis. Received: 5 August 1998; in revised form: 3 September 1998 / Accepted: 3 September, 1998     

M31, a murine homolog of Drosophila HP1, is concentrated in the XY body during spermatogenesis.

The formation of the sex vesicle, or XY body, during male meiosis and pairing of the sex chromosomes are thought to be essential for successful spermatogenesis. Despite its cytological discovery a century ago, the mechanism of XY body formation, particularly heterochromatinization of the sex chromosomes, has remained unclear. The HP1 class of chromobox genes are thought to encode proteins involved in the packaging of chromosomal DNA into repressive heterochromatin domains, as seen, for example, in position-effect variegation. Study of the distribution of a murine HP1-like chromodomain protein, M31, during spermatogenesis revealed spreading from the tip of the XY body in mid-stage pachytene spermatocytes to include the whole of the XY body in late-pachytene spermatocytes. We also demonstrate that the formation of the XY body during spermatogenic progression in neonatal mice coincides with the expression of a novel nuclear isoform of M31, M31(p21). These results support the view that a common mechanistic basis exists for heterochromatin-induced repression, homeotic gene silencing, and sex-chromosome inactivation during mammalian spermatogenesis.     

Micronuclei and chromosome aberrations in Xenopus laevis spermatocytes and spermatids exposed to adriamycin and colcemid

Cultured testes and spermatocytes from the frog Xenopus laevis have been incubated (40-42 h) with adriamycin or colcemid followed by quantitation of chromosome aberrations in secondary spermatocytes and quantitation of micronuclei in secondary spermatocytes, early round spermatids, and round spermatids with acrosomal vacuoles (AV) at 18-162 h of culture. Micronucleus frequencies were consistently higher in secondary spermatocytes relative to round spermatids after exposure to either adriamycin or colcemid due to a higher rate of micronucleus formation during meiosis I compared to meiosis II. Also, some of the micronuclei formed during meiosis I did not survive meiosis II to form micronucleated spermatids. Micronucleus formation occurred in 3-7% of secondary spermatocytes with detectable chromosome aberrations, depending upon drug treatment. Thus, the ratio of micronuclei to total chromosome aberrations in secondary spermatocytes was always higher in colcemid-treated cells compared to adriamycin-treated cells following 18- and 42-h treatment periods. Adriamycin induced significant increases in micronuclei in both secondary spermatocytes and spermatids after 162 h of culture, the time for initial pachytene stages to develop into secondary spermatocytes and spermatids. The data show that cultured testes and spermatocytes from Xenopus may be used to quantify specific meiotic chromosome aberrations induced by both clastogens and spindle poisons using either a rapid secondary spermatocyte micronucleus assay or meiotic chromosome analysis.     

Failure of spermatogenesis in mice lacking connexin43

Connexin43 (Cx43), a gap junction protein encoded by the Gja1 gene, is expressed in several cell types of the testis. Cx43 gap junctions couple Sertoli cells with each other, Leydig cells with each other, and spermatogonia/spermatocytes with Sertoli cells. To investigate the role of this communication pathway in spermatogenesis, we studied postnatal testis development in mice lacking Cx43. Because such mice die shortly after birth, it was necessary to graft testes from null mutant fetuses under the kidney capsules of adult males for up to 3 wk. Grafted wild-type testes were used as controls. In our initial experiments with wild-type testes, histological examination indicated that the development of grafted testes kept pace with that of nongrafted testes in terms of the onset of meiosis, but this development required the presence of the host gonads. When excised grafts were stimulated in vitro with cAMP or LH, there was no significant difference in androgen production between null mutant and wild-type testes, indicating that the absence of Cx43 had not compromised steroidogenesis. Previous research has shown that Cx43 null mutant neonates have a germ cell deficiency that arises during fetal life, and our analysis of grafted testes demonstrated that this deficiency persists postnatally, giving rise to a "Sertoli cell only" phenotype. These results indicate that intercellular communication via Cx43 channels is required for postnatal expansion of the male germ line.     

Expression of nuclear transport importins beta 1 and beta 3 is regulated during rodent spermatogenesis

Spermatogenic differentiation requires progressive gene expression changes, and proteins required for this must be transported into the nucleus. Many of these contain a nuclear localization signal and are likely to be transported by importin protein family members, each of which recognizes and transports distinct cargo proteins. We hypothesized that importins, as modulators of protein nuclear access, would display distinct expression profiles during spermatogenesis, indicating their potential to regulate key steps in cellular differentiation. This was tested throughout testicular development in rodents. Real-time PCR analysis of postnatal mouse testes revealed changing expression levels of Knpb1 (encoding importin beta 1) and Ranbp5 (encoding beta 3) mRNAs, with Knpb1 highest at 26 days postpartum and Ranbp5 highest in Day 26 and adult testis. Their distinctive cellular expression patterns visualized using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry were identical in mouse and rat testes where examined. Within the seminiferous epithelium, Knpb1 mRNA and importin beta1 protein were detected within mitotic Sertoli and germ cells during fetal and early postnatal development, becoming restricted to spermatogonia and spermatocytes in adulthood. Importin beta 3 protein in fetal germ cells displayed a striking difference in intracellular localization between male and female gonads. In adult testes, Ranbp5 mRNA was detected in round spermatids and importin beta 3 protein in elongating spermatids. This is the first comprehensive in situ demonstration of developmentally regulated synthesis of nuclear transport components. The contrasting expression patterns of importins beta 1 and 3 identify them as candidates for regulating nuclear access of factors required for developmental switches.     

SPAG4L, a novel nuclear envelope protein involved in the meiotic stage of spermatogenesis

SUN domain-containing proteins belong to a novel protein family. To date, several members--SUN1, SUN2, SUN3, and SPAG4--have been identified as nuclear envelope (NE) proteins. In this study, we sought to characterize and define the potential function of SPAG4L, a newly identified SUN protein. Using bioinformatic analysis, we found that SPAG4L contained a conserved SUN domain in the C-terminal. Subcellular localization analysis indicated that the expression of green fluorescent protein-labeled full-length SPAG4L was localized to the NE and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Deletion analysis revealed that the transmembrane region and the coiled-coil domain, but not the SUN domain, were required for localization of SPAG4L to the NE and ER. Subsequently, we confirmed that the human testes expressed endogenous SPAG4L as a 43-kDa protein. Further studies revealed that mouse Spag4L colocalized with the NE marker Lamin B1 and the ER marker PDI in isolated mouse spermatocytes. In addition, the expression of Spag4L was observed in meiosis I and II stages, suggesting that Spag4L may be involved in NE reconstitution and nuclear migration occurring during the process of spermatocyte division. Together, the findings indicate that SPAG4L, a new NE protein, may play an important role in the meiotic stage of spermatogenesis.