Dietary habits and mortality in 11,000 vegetarians and health conscious people: results of a 17 year follow up.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association of dietary habits with mortality in a cohort of vegetarians and other health conscious people. DESIGN: Observational study. SETTING: United Kingdom. SUBJECTS: 4336 men and 6435 women recruited through health food shops, vegetarian societies, and magazines. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Mortality ratios for vegetarianism and for daily versus less than daily consumption of wholemeal bread, bran cereals, nuts or dried fruit, fresh fruit, and raw salad in relation to all cause mortality and mortality from ischaemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, all malignant neoplasms, lung cancer, colorectal cancer, and breast cancer. RESULTS: 2064 (19%) subjects smoked, 4627 (43%) were vegetarian, 6699 (62%) ate wholemeal bread daily, 2948 (27%) ate bran cereals daily, 4091 (38%) ate nuts or dried fruit daily, 8304 (77%) ate fresh fruit daily, and 4105 (38%) ate raw salad daily. After a mean of 16.8 years follow up there were 1343 deaths before age 80. Overall the cohort had a mortality about half that of the general population. Within the cohort, daily consumption of fresh fruit was associated with significantly reduced mortality from ischaemic heart disease (rate ratio adjusted for smoking 0.76 (95% confidence interval 0.60 to 0.97)), cerebrovascular disease (0.68 (0.47 to 0.98)), and for all causes combined (0.79 (0.70 to 0.90)). CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of health conscious individuals, daily consumption of fresh fruit is associated with a reduced mortality from ischaemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, and all causes combined.     

Effects of diet composition on mutagenic activity in urine

The effects of dietary habits on mutagenic activity in urine were investigated using the umu test based on the use of the genetically engineered bacteria Salmonella typhimurium TA 1535 pSK1002. Genotoxic effects in sample urine were detected by measuring the activation of the SOS response in the bacteria and recording the beta- galactosidase activity. Human subjects consisted of smokers and non-smokers. Urine from subjects who consumed fish showed the highest mutagenic activity, followed by the urine samples from subjects who ate pork or beef. Chicken induced a low level of mutagenic activity. When the subjects ate fried or roasted animal foods, the urine samples gave higher mutagenicity than the urine samples from the subject who consumed non-fried or non-roasted animal foods. When the subject ate vegetables along with a diet rich in animal foods, the activity in urine decreased. Herbs and spices gave the same tendency toward decline as vegetables. Non-smoker urine shower mutagenic activity than samples from smokers.     

Iron intake of infants: the importance of infant cereals.

Since 1976 many baby foods have been reformulated and the iron used to fortify infant cereals has been changed to a more bioavailable form. Therefore, the dietary intake of iron by infants from 1 to 18 months of age was assessed in a longitudinal survey conducted in Toronto and Montreal between 1977 and 1979. Except in the 1st and 18th months the mean daily iron consumption of the infants was above that recommended in the Dietary Standard for Canada. The main source of this nutrient was infant cereals. Examination of the diets of the infants who did not have the recommended daily intake of iron showed that they did not consume sufficient amounts of infant cereals and other iron-rich foods. These results indicate that without such cereals it is difficult to provide infants with the amount of iron they need. Therefore, infants should receive these cereals during the first 2 years of life.     

Psyllium fibre and the metabolic control of obese children and adolescents

In children and adolescents from developed countries, obesity prevalence has strongly increased in the last decades and insulin resistance and impaired glucose tolerance are frequently observed. Some dietary components such as low glycemic index foods and dietary fibre could be used in order to improve glucose homeostasis in these children. Psyllium or ispaghula husk (the husk of the seeds of Plantago ovata) is a mixture of neutral and acid polysaccharides containing galacturonic acid with a ratio of soluble/insoluble fibre of 70/30. Some foods could potentially be enriched with psyllium, like breads, breakfast cereals, pasta and snack foods. The aim of this review was to assess the usefulness of psyllium in the management of obese children and adolescents with abnormalities of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. After psyllium supplementation, the percentage change in postprandial glucose in type 2 diabetes patients, ranged from -12.2 to -20.2%. In hypercholesterolemic children, the effect of psyllium in LDL-cholesterol serum concentrations ranged from 2.78 to -22.8%; the effect in HDL-cholesterol from -4.16 to 3.05%; and the effect on triglycerides from 8.49 to -19.54%. The reviewed evidence seems to show that psyllium improves glucose homeostasis and the lipid and lipoprotein profile; however, more well controlled trials and further studies are needed to clarify it's effects and the mechanisms involved.     

Dietary generalists and nutritional specialists: Feeding strategies of adult female blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) in the Kakamega Forest,Kenya

Generalist primates eat many food types and shift their diet with changes in food availability. Variation in foods eaten may not, however, match variation in nutrient intake. We examined dietary variation in a generalist‐feeder, the blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis), to see how dietary food intake related to variation in available food and nutrient intake. We used 371 all‐day focal follows from 24 adult females (three groups) in a wild rainforest population to quantify daily diet over 9 months. We measured food availability using vegetation surveys and phenology monitoring. We analyzed >700 food and fecal samples for macronutrient content. Subjects included 445 food items (species‐specific plant parts and insect morphotypes) in their diet. Variation in fruit consumption (percentage of diet and total kcal) tracked variation in availability, suggesting fruit was a preferred food type. Fruits also constituted the majority of the diet (by calories) and some fruit species were eaten more than expected based on relative availability. In contrast, few species of young leaves were eaten more than expected. Also, subjects ate fewer young leaves (based on calories consumed) when fruit or young leaves were more available, suggesting that young leaves served as fallback foods. Despite the broad range of foods in the diet, group differences in fiber digestibility, and variation that reflected food availability, subjects and groups converged on similar nutrient intakes (grand mean ± SD: 637.1 ± 104.7 kcal overall energy intake, 293.3 ± 46.9 kcal nonstructural carbohydrate, 147.8 ± 72.4 kcal lipid, 107.8 ± 12.9 kcal available protein, and 88.1 ± 17.5 kcal structural carbohydrate; N = 24 subjects). Thus, blue monkeys appear to be food composition generalists and nutrient intake specialists, using flexible feeding strategies to regulate nutrient intake. Findings highlight the importance of simultaneously examining dietary composition at both levels of foods and nutrients to understand primate feeding ecology.     

Dietary fiber and the glycemic response

Addition of purified fiber to carbohydrate test meals has been shown to flatten the glycemic response in both normal and diabetic volunteers, reduce the insulin requirement in patients on the artificial pancreas and in the longer term reduce urinary glucose loss and improve diabetes control. In the context of high fiber-high carbohydrate diets these findings have had a major impact in influencing recommendations for the dietary management of diabetes internationally. The mechanism of action appears in part to be due to the effect of fiber in slowing absorption rather than by increasing colonic losses of carbohydrate. Consequently postprandial GIP and insulin levels are reduced and the more viscous purified fibers (e.g., guar and pectin) appear most effective. In addition it has been suggested that colonic fermentation products of fiber may enhance glucose utilization. More recently it has become clear that many aspects of carbohydrate foods (food form, antinutrients, etc.) in addition to fiber may influence the rate of digestion and has led to a classification especially of starchy foods in terms of glycemic index to define the degree to which equicarbohydrate portions of different foods raise the blood glucose. Use of such data may maximize the effectiveness of high carbohydrate and high fiber diets in the management of diabetes and related disorders.     

How female caterpillars accumulate their nutrient reserves

Female Lepidoptera are often heavier than males. We examined the importance of consumption and post-ingestive processing as mechanisms for female Heliothis virescens larvae to meet the protein and carbohydrate requirements. In experiments in which caterpillars had a choice of diets, enabling them to select an appropriate protein and carbohydrate intake, females caterpillars ate more carbohydrate than males, but only on the heavily carbohydrate biased treatment. Overall, the sexes were not distinguished according to the selective feeding behavior, but females accumulated more protein and carbohydrate over the whole instar than the males did. Additionally, when given no choice, females ate more than males and accumulated more protein provided the diet contained a high proportion of protein. If they were reared on a high carbohydrate diet, there were no differences between the sexes. Our results indicate that female H. virescens larvae accumulate protein by regulating both intake and post-ingestive processing on high protein foods. In the field, late instar H. virescens feed on anthers, which are protein-rich and have the highest amino acid content relative to other cotton floral tissues.     

Chromium metabolism and its role in disease processes in man

Chromium is an essential element required for normal carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Insufficient dietary Cr has been linked to maturity-onset diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The dietary Cr intake of most individuals is considerably less than the suggested safe and adequate intake. Consumption of refined foods, including simple sugars, exacerbates the problem of insufficient dietary Cr since these foods are not only low in dietary Cr but also enhance additional Cr losses. Chromium losses are also increased due to pregnancy, strenuous exercise, infection, physical trauma and other forms of stress. Supplementation of Cr to normal free-living individuals often leads to significant improvements in glucose tolerance, serum lipids including high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, insulin and insulin binding. Chromium also tends to normalize blood sugar. Chromium supplementation of subjects with elevated blood sugar following a glucose load leads to a decrease in blood sugar while hypoglycemics respond to supplemental Cr by an increase in hypoglycemic glucose values, increased insulin binding and alleviation of hypoglycemic symptoms. In summary, dietary intake of Cr is suboptimal and this is exacerbated by increased Cr losses due to stress and certain refined foods including simple sugars that enhance Cr losses. Supplemental Cr is associated with improvements of risk factors associated with maturity-onset diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.     

Gesetzliche Regelungen für Mykotoxine in Lebensmitteln (Official Regulations on Mycotoxins in Food)

When establishing maximum limits, in addition to issues relating to preventive consumer protection and toxicological data on risk assessment, sampling procedures and methods of analysis, as well as economic and political aspects have to be considered. Therefore, various and diverse organizations tend to be involved in the process of establishing maximum limits. Specifically, the following are responsible for the toxicological evaluation of the substances in question: International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), International Agency of Research on Cancer (IARC), Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), and, within the Commission of the European Communities, the Scientific Committee for Food (SCF). The interests of world-wide trade are looked after by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the Codex Committee of Food Additives and Contaminants, and the World Trade Organisation, WTO. On the basis of Commission Regulation (EC) no. 315/93, in 2001 the EU has adopted Commission Regulation (EC) no. 466/2001 on contaminants establishing maximum limits for nitrates, heavy metals, 3-monochlor-propan-1,2-diol, and aflatoxins in foods (peanuts, nuts, dried fruits, cereal/cereal products). In February 2002, this Regulation has been completed by Regulation (EC) no. 257/2002 (aflatoxins in cereals), and in March 2002 by Regulation (EC) no. 472/2002 (aflatoxins in spices and ochratoxin A in cereals and dried grapes). Reference is made to other mycotoxins the levels of which in certain foods should be the subject of future regulations.     

鸡冠花种子营养成分的研究

鸡冠花种子可供食用和药用。作者采用常规方法系统地分析测定了其营养成分,并和一些谷类,豆类食物进行了比较。结果显示,鸡冠花种子含各种营养成分:蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物、膳食纤维、氨基酸、维生素、无机元素等,不仅含量丰富且高于谷类。这为开发利用鸡冠花种子提供了科学依据。     

Effect of two rearing conditions on growth and body composition in carp (Cyprinus carpio L) (author's transl)]

A comparative study was made of the growth and of the influence of seasonal changes on nitrogen and carbohydrate metabolism of carp kept in batches in natural ponds. 10 Growth is active only in natural ponds. In batches where only industrial dried foods are used, no growth can be measured. 20 Activity of ribonucleic and protein metabolism is correlated with seasonal variations of water temperature in both conditions.     

A convenient procedure for producing gram-quantities of brucine l-guluronate and brucine d-mannuronate

A comparative investigation of the individual protein-bound carbohydrate components and the distribution of carbohydrates in the electrophoretic glycoprotein fractions was carried out in sera from 20 normal subjects and 30 schizophrenic patients matched for age and sex. The mean concentration of each of the protein-bound carbohydrate components was significantly elevated in schizophrenics. The electrophoretic patterns for serum glycoprotein showed increases in alpha-2 and beta globulins in schizophrenics. The serum glycoproteins contained glucose and l-arabinose, in addition to mannose, galactose, fucose, sialic acid, and a trace of xylose. The identity of glucose and arabinose was confirmed by g.l.c.-electron-impact mass spectrometry and by specific enzymic reactions. The contents of glucose and arabinose were higher in serum glycoproteins from schizophrenic patients. This elevation of serum glycoprotein paralleled serum glycosaminoglycan elevation previously reported by us, but was opposite to decrease of urinary glycoprotein in schizophrenics.     

Moose soup shigellosis in Alaska.

Following a community gathering held in early September 1991, an outbreak of gastroenteritis occurred in Galena, Alaska. We conducted an epidemiologic investigation to determine the cause of the outbreak. A case of gastroenteritis was defined as diarrhea or at least 2 other symptoms of gastrointestinal illness occurring in a Galena resident within a week of the gathering. Control subjects included asymptomatic residents who either resided with an affected person or were contacted by us during a telephone survey. Of 25 case-patients, 23 had attended the gathering compared with 33 of 58 controls. Among persons who attended the gathering and from whom we obtained a food consumption history, 17 of 19 case-patients and 11 of 22 controls ate moose soup. No other foods served at the gathering were associated with illness. Ten case-patients had culture-confirmed Shigella sonnei. Many pots of moose soup were served each day, and persons attended the gathering and ate moose soup on more than 1 day. Moose soup was prepared in private homes, allowed to cool, and usually served the same day. We identified 5 women who had prepared soup for the gathering and in whose homes at least 1 person had a gastrointestinal illness occur at the time of or shortly before soup preparation. This investigation suggests that eating contaminated moose soup at a community gathering led to an outbreak of shigellosis and highlights the risk of eating improperly prepared or stored foods at public gatherings.     

Insulin and Non-esterified Fatty Acid Metabolism in Asymptomatic Diabetics and Atherosclerotic Subjects

Glucose, insulin and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) metabolism was studied in 18 patients (mean age 49) with ischemic heart disease (IHD) who did not have any concurrent disorder known to affect glucose tolerance.Significant hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia were observed in the IHD patients after oral glucose. The serum NEFA declined to a lower level in IHD patients than in normal subjects who received glucose.In response to hypoglycemia following the oral administration of sodium tolbutamide the serum NEFA in IHD patients rose to a higher level in the rebound phase than in normal subjects. This rise was preceded by a sharp decline in the concentration of circulating insulin.In 72% of the patients (IHD sub-group) the blood glucose values after oral glucose satisfied the criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. The metabolic changes following oral glucose in the IHD sub-group and in asymptomatic diabetics (AD), free of clinical atherosclerosis and with similar impairment in glucose tolerance, were compared. Despite insignificantly lower insulin concentrations, the AD showed a significantly lesser fall in circulating NEFA than did the patients in the IHD sub-group. After oral sodium tolbutamide the IHD sub-group patients showed a greater insulin response and a greater rebound increase in circulating NEFA than did the AD.These differences in response to oral glucose and to sodium tolbutamide suggest that the pathogenesis of the impaired glucose tolerance in IHD may be different from that responsible for abnormal carbohydrate tolerance in asymptomatic diabetics without evident atherosclerosis. The abnormalities demonstrated in glucose, insulin and NEFA metabolism may play a role in the genesis of the hyperlipoproteinemia and atherosclerosis of IHD. One possible mechanism leading to hyperlipoproteinemia in ischemic heart disease compatible with the data is discussed.     

The clinical utility of the glycemic index and its application to mixed meals

A classification of carbohydrate-containing foods based on their glycemic response to 50-g carbohydrate portions has recently been developed. The relative glycemic potency of many of these carbohydrate-containing foods have been compared, and these data have been published in the form of a glycemic index. It has been suggested that meals containing low glycemic index foods will result in a lower postprandial glucose response than meals with a higher glycemic index. However, whether or not these data will lead to a clinically useful reduction in postprandial hyperglycemia in individuals with carbohydrate intolerance remains controversial. In this review, we will try to delineate why we believe that the glycemic index, as currently developed, may be a specious tissue. In addition, we will briefly discuss a number of factors that may explain the apparent discrepancy in viewpoints on this issue.     

Social context and consumption of unfamiliar foods by capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) over repeated encounters

Visalberghi and Fragaszy [Animal Behaviour 49:1089–1095, 1995] have shown that social influences affect acceptance of novel foods. However, little is known about the temporal course on which such influences act (e.g., for how long they persist and for how many encounters they are effective). To explore this issue, 11 adult tufted capuchins were observed during ten successive encounters with eight unfamiliar foods (phase 1, in which subjects were tested in social or individual condition) and ten more encounters 6 months later (phase 2, in which all subjects were tested in social condition). A total of 680 observational sessions were carried out. Results show that during the first five encounters in phase 1, capuchins ate more when they encountered these foods in the presence of their groupmates than if they encountered them alone. Thereafter, during the second five encounters of phase 1, foods were consumed equivalently whether presented to monkeys socially or individually. In phase 2, the foods were consumed equivalently regardless of the previous circumstance of their presentation (social or alone). In phase 2, consumption was similar to that scored in a previous study for familiar foods [Visalberghi & Fragaszy, Animal Behaviour 49:1089–1095, 1995]. We conclude that 1) foods remain unfamiliar to capuchins only for the first few encounters, 2) social facilitation of consumption of unfamiliar foods is of limited duration, and 3) individuals consumed equivalent amounts of an unfamiliar food when they repeatedly encountered it alone or in the presence of groupmates. These results caution those who interpret similar feeding habits in primate groups as evidence of social influences. Am. J. Primatol. 45:367–380, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The influence of high carbohydrate diet on plasma glucose and insulin of trained subjects

In previous studies we have shown that when endurance athletes refrain from daily exercise for three days, they rapidly loose their enhanced insulin sensitivity. This finding suggests that a precompetitive high carbohydrate diet with reduced training might alter plasma glucose and insulin regulation. To test this hypothesis, six long distance runners were recruited to participate in a five-day experiment. During the first two days, the subjects fasted while running 16 km d-1. Thereafter, they consumed 16.3 MJ (3900 kcal) and 539 g carbohydrate per day for three days while remaining inactive. Before and after each portion of this experiment, an intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT) was performed in fasting state. As expected, fasting with exercise induced a considerable deterioration of glucose tolerance, as reflected by lower K value and higher total area glucose during IVGTT. The high carbohydrate refeeding restored glucose tolerance to a level comparable to that observed when subjects maintain their usual life habits. However, while a decrease in insulin sensitivity is observed in subjects inactive for three days, the insulin sparing effect of exercise training is retained if this period of inactivity is preceded by two days of fast accompanied by exercise. These results show that glucose disposal and insulin response to glucose injection are not adversely modified by the precompetitive "glycogen loading" procedure.     

Vitamin D status of Asian infants.

Vitamin D intakes of infants aged 6 and 18 months from the Asian community in Southhall, Middlesex, were studied to assess the effectiveness of food fortification as a means of preventing vitamin D deficiency. Infants aged 6 months generally had similar diets to white children of the same age and had reasonable vitamin D intakes owing to consumption of fortified dried milks and cereals, reinforced by health visitors and baby clinics. Children aged 18 months, however, ate largely Asian diets and had much lower vitamin D intakes than the 6-month-old group with a corresponding increase in symptoms of vitamin D deficiency. Hence new measures for preventing vitamin D deficiency should probably be aimed at children aged over 1 year. The results of this survey suggest that fortifying chapati flour would be the most effective method of doing this.     

Effect of different carbohydrate drinks on whole body carbohydrate storage after exhaustive exercise.

Seven untrained male subjects participated in a double-blind, crossover study conducted to determine the efficacy of different carbohydrate drinks in promoting carbohydrate storage in the whole body and skeletal muscle during recovery from exhaustive exercise. The postabsorptive subjects first completed an exercise protocol designed to deplete muscle fibers of glycogen, then consumed 330 ml of one of three carbohydrate drinks (18.5% glucose polymer, 18.5% sucrose, or 12% sucrose; wt/vol) and also received a primed constant infusion of [1-(13)C]glucose for 2 h. Nonoxidative glucose disposal (3.51 +/- 0.28, 18.5% glucose polymer; 2.96 +/- 0.32, 18.5% sucrose; 2.97 +/- 0.16, 12% sucrose; all mmol. kg(-1). h(-1)) and storage of muscle glycogen (5.31 +/- 1.11, 18.5% glucose polymer; 4.07 +/- 1.05, 18.5% sucrose; 3.45 +/- 0.85, 12% sucrose; all mmol. kg wet wt(-1). h(-1); P < 0.05) were greater after consumption of the glucose polymer drink than after either sucrose drink. The results suggest that the consumption of a glucose polymer drink (containing 61 g carbohydrate) promotes a more rapid storage of carbohydrate in the whole body, skeletal muscle in particular, than an isoenergetic sucrose drink.     

Influence of salt on glycaemic response to carbohydrate loading.

The effect of dietary salt on glycaemic responses to different test meals was investigated. Eight healthy male volunteers ate four test meals on consecutive mornings and in random order; the meals were 50 g carbohydrate taken as a 20% glucose solution or as boiled macaroni with and without supplementation with 6 g salt. In contrast with other reports, no significant differences in peak plasma glucose concentrations or areas under the plasma glucose curves could be established. These findings do not support a beneficial effect of salt restriction on glycaemic control in diabetes.