面积与植物群落结构对城市公园气温的影响

城市公园对城市热岛的缓解作用广为人知,但是对公园面积和结构如何影响其降温作用却缺乏足够的了解.选择上海市15个公园,研究公园面积和植物群落结构对秋季公园气温和公园冷岛强度的影响,结果表明:秋季城市公园的温度比周边商住区的温度低,公园有明显的冷岛效应,公园的位置影响公园的降温效果,市区公园的气温和冷岛强度与公园面积之间存在显著的定量关系,市区公园的气温随公园面积的增加而增加,冷岛强度则随公园面积增加而降低.公园内不同植物群落类型的降温效果存在差异,其中乔-灌-草类型降温效果最好.     

基于Landsat-8影像的沿海城市公园冷岛效应——以厦门为例

城市公园主要由水体和绿色植被等景观构成,其形成的公园冷岛(Park cool island,PCI)已成为减缓城市热岛效应的重要途径之一。采用景感生态学中的景感营造理念规划设计城市公园或优化公园空间结构有助于增强公园冷岛效应,进一步改善局地城市热环境。选择沿海城市——厦门市为研究对象,基于2013年8月的Landsat-8 OLI/TIRS遥感影像和Google Earth高分影像数据,首先提取了研究区15个公园的土地利用信息,采用改进的地表温度单通道算法,获取了城市公园地表温度数据,并采用缓冲区分析、景观格局指数和多元统计等方法定量分析公园内部平均地表温度、城市公园冷岛强度(即降温幅度)、公园冷岛影响距离(即对周边区域的降温范围)三者的主要影响因子,并利用景感生态学原理初步剖析了城市公园景感营造的原则。结果显示:(1)公园面积和公园建设用地面积是影响公园平均温度的关键因子(R²=0.915),这两个因子与公园平均温度均呈显著非线性相关;公园面积存在阈值55 hm²左右;(2)公园冷岛PCI强度由公园绿地面积、公园建筑面积和面积-周长形状指数...     

Growth and water relations of Liquidambar styraciflua L. in an urban park and plaza

Summary Growth and water relations of 10-year-old sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) street trees were studied in sites with low and high potential evapotranspiration to determine how these differences are integrated by growth and water relations over time. The trees were located in the parking strip between the curb and sidewalk at a partially vegetated urban park and an urban plaza in Seattle, Washington. Crown size, and seasonal and diurnal stomatal conductance and water potential, as well as diurnal air temperature and humidity, were measured over 2 growing seasons. Yearly trunk growth since transplanting was measured from increment cores. Vapor pressure deficits and air temperatures averaged 18% greater at the plaza, but whole-tree water loss appeared to be much lower than the park trees due to more restricted stomatal conductance and crown size. In addition, yearly diameter increment declined progressively once the plaza trees were established in the existing soil several years after transplanting. Lower water potential in the plaza trees indicated greater internal moisture deficits than the park trees, and tissue analysis revealed lower nutritional status, particularly nitrogen. A manipulative study of water and fertilizer to several additional plaza trees showed an interaction between water and nutrient deficiencies in the coarse and shallow soil that apparently limited growth. Furthermore, soil limitations probably interacted with paved surface conditions over time by reducing nutrient recycling from leaf litter, and generating higher vapor pressure deficits that would contribute to prolonged stomatal closure. Restricted growth and water relations status of the plaza trees represented an equilibrium between chronic high-resource demand above ground and limited below ground.     

Bioclimatic conditions in Mexico City – an assessment

 Bioclimatic conditions have been assessed for a large urban area located in the tropical highlands of central Mexico using the indices (in °C) of resultant temperature (RT) and effective temperature (ET). The well-developed heat island effect the city generates, reduces the number of nights categorized as cold (ET between 5 and 15° C) to cool (ET from 15 to 18.5° C). Most days fall in the cold to cool range and during the warm season (April to June) the bioclimate of Mexico City is mostly within the neutral (comfort) range. The effect of the nocturnal (to the west) and daytime (to the east of the town) heat island is noticeable in the central and northern sectors. The daytime heat island located in these regions, albeit small (urban air temperature 2–3° C greater than rural), compared with the nocturnal heat island intensity (9–10° C) still adds energy to the already heated afternoon urban air. ET values in the north and central sectors approach the threshold for comfort (ET of 25° C) during the warm months around noon. It is not surprising to find that as the nocturnal heat island has increased over the years (1921–1985) as the city grew, so has the ET for the central district and indicating the dominating role of temperature in the ET index. Assessment of the diurnal cycle of bioclimatic conditions in downtown Mexico City by means of two empirical indices (effective temperature and thermopreferendum) throughout the years gave similar results to those obtained from the application of Fanger’s predicted mean vote (PMV) model. An attempt has been made to characterize four bioclimatic zones in the capital city. Received: 8 March 1994 / Revised: 15 July 1996 / Accepted: 9 September 1996     

Thermal bioclimatic conditions and patterns of behaviour in an urban park in Göteborg,Sweden

People in urban areas frequently use parks for recreation and outdoor activities. Owing to the complexity of the outdoor environment, there have only been a few attempts to understand the effect of the thermal environment on people's use of outdoor spaces. This paper therefore seeks to determine the relationship between the thermal environment, park use and behavioural patterns in an urban area of Sweden. The methods used include structured interviews, unobtrusive observations of the naturally occurring behaviour and simultaneous measurements of thermal comfort variables, i.e., air temperature, air humidity, wind speed and global radiation. The thermal environment is investigated through the mean radiant temperature (T_mrt) and the predicted mean vote (PMV) index. The outcome is compared to the subjective behaviour and thermal sensation of the interviewees. It is found that the thermal environment, access and design are important factors in the use of the park. In order to continue to use the park when the thermal conditions become too cold or too hot for comfort, people improve their comfort conditions by modifying their clothing and by choosing the most supportive thermal opportunities available within the place. The study also shows that psychological aspects such as time of exposure, expectations, experience and perceived control may influence the subjective assessment. Comparison between the thermal sensation of the interviewees and the thermal sensation assessed by the PMV index indicates that steady-state models such as the PMV index may not be appropriate for the assessment of short-term outdoor thermal comfort, mainly because they are unable to analyse transient exposure.     

郑州市公园绿地景观特征对公园冷岛效应的影响

城市公园有助于缓解城市热岛效应,减少城市降温能耗。选取郑州市中心城区内44个主要公园,利用Landsat8遥感数据和土地利用数据,结合ENVI、ArcGIS、Fragstats、SPSS等软件分析公园冷岛效应的影响因素。冷岛强度的研究从景观特征、景观构成、景观配置3个层面来进行,结果表明:场地条件有限的情况下公园面积控制在20 hm²左右能产生较高冷岛强度;公园边界越简单冷岛效应越强,而植物和不透水表面斑块的边界越复杂公园冷岛效应越强;同等面积下有水体的公园与无水体的公园相比降温效果相差1℃左右;水体占比控制在14%左右公园冷岛强度较为显著;在进行公园景观配置时,公园内植物和水体的组合相比于不透水表面与植物的组合及不透水表面与水体的组合能产生更好的降温效应。利用标准差椭圆工具进一步分析公园冷岛强度的方向性,发现公园的冷岛方向主要与园内水体长轴以及园外高层建筑的分布有关。     

夏季城市河流宽度对绿地温湿效益的影响

城市河流是城市生态系统中重要的组成部分,对城市生态环境的改善发挥着重要作用.利用小尺度定量测定的技术方法,分析了北京市三环至五环附近7条不同宽度城市河流对其旁侧绿地温湿效益的影响.结果表明： 城市河流宽度是影响绿地温湿效应的重要因素.当河流宽度为8 m时,绿地具有一定的增湿效应,但降温效果不明显;当河流宽度为14～33 m时,绿地降温、增湿效果明显;当河流宽度超过40 m时,绿地降温、增湿效果显著且趋于稳定.7条河流旁侧绿地与各自对照间的温、湿度差异均达到显著水平,且显著发挥温湿效益的河流宽度为44 m.河流旁侧绿地夏季温度（x）、湿度（y）关系的回归方程为y=173.191-3.247x,相对湿度每升高1.0%,温度降低约0.3 ℃.     

上海闵行区园林鸟类群落嵌套结构

城市中的园林绿地呈现斑块状分布,其栖息地特征与岛屿栖息地相似。2008年11月至2009年10月,对上海市闵行区内的7块城市绿地进行调查,记录雀形目鸟类的分布情况,并运用Nestedness temperature calculator软件,检验其群落结构是否符合嵌套结构。运用Arc GIS软件分析该地区的卫星图片,收集7块样地的面积、绿地盖度、水源距离和人为干扰程度等数据,结合实地调查所得到的数据,分析这一嵌套结构的形成原因和影响因素。结果显示：上海市闵行区城市绿地中的雀形目鸟类分布是显著的嵌套结构,园林面积、绿地面积和水源情况都对其嵌套结构有显著影响。但是与真正岛屿上存在的群落分布嵌套结构不同,人为干扰程度对这一结构也有非常明显的影响。基于上述结果可以看出,影响上海市园林鸟类的群落嵌套结构的主要原因是栖息地的结构和人为干扰程度。因此,建议在规划和建设城市公园和绿地时,应该偏重于面积较大,植被盖度和丰富度高,结构合理的园林,并且尽量减少人为干扰。     

Opportunity or Orientation? Who Uses Urban Parks and Why

There is growing recognition that interactions with nature provide many desirable human well-being outcomes, yet increasing urbanization is degrading the quality and quantity of nature experiences. Thus, it has become increasingly important to understand how and why urban dwellers interact with nature. Studies of urban green space use have largely focused on the availability and ease of access to green space, suggesting that greater opportunities to experience such space will lead to increased use. However, a growing literature emphasizes the potential for an individual''s nature orientation to affect their interaction with green space. Here we measure the importance of both opportunity and orientation factors in explaining urban park use. An urban lifestyle survey was deployed across Brisbane, Australia in November 2012 to assess patterns of green space use. Participants (n = 1479) were asked to provide information on demographics, private yard use, park visitations in the past week, and their orientation toward nature. About 60% of those surveyed had visited a park in the past week, and while this park user population had significantly greater nearby park coverage (within a 250 m radius; p = 0.006), a much stronger determinant of visitation was their higher nature orientation (p<0.00001), suggesting that while both opportunity and orientation are important drivers for park visitation, nature orientation is the primary effect. Park users also spent significantly more time in their yards than non-park users (p<0.00001), suggesting that yard use does not necessarily compensate for lower park use. Park users with stronger nature orientation (i) spent more time in their yard, (ii) traveled further to green spaces, and (iii) made longer visits than park visitors with weaker nature orientation. Overall, our results suggest that measures to increase people''s connection to nature could be more important than measures to increase urban green space availability if we want to encourage park visitation.     

Physiological and psychological responses of young males during spring-time walks in urban parks

Background

It is widely believed that contact with the natural environment can improve physical and mental health. Urban green spaces may provide city residents with these benefits; however, there is a lack of empirical field research on the health benefits of urban parks.

Methods

This field experiment was performed in May. Seventeen males aged 21.2 ± 1.7 years (mean ± standard deviation) were instructed to walk predetermined 15-minute courses in an urban park and a nearby city area (control). Heart rate and heart rate variability (HRV) were measured to assess physiological responses. The semantic differential (SD) method, Profile of Mood States (POMS), and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) were used to measure psychological responses.

Results

Heart rate was significantly lower while walking in the urban park than while walking in the city street. Furthermore, the urban park walk led to higher parasympathetic nervous activity and lower sympathetic nervous activity compared with the walk through the city street. Subjective evaluations were generally in accordance with physiological reactions, and significantly higher scores were observed for the ‘comfortable’, ‘natural’, and ‘relaxed’ parameters following the urban park walk. After the urban park walk, the score for the ‘vigor’ subscale of the POMS was significantly higher, whereas that for negative feelings such as ‘tension-anxiety’ and ‘fatigue’ was significantly lower. The score for the anxiety dimension of the STAI was also significantly lower after the urban park walk.

Conclusions

Physiological and psychological results from this field experiment provide evidence for the physiological and psychological benefits of urban green spaces. A brief spring-time walk in an urban park shifted sympathetic/parasympathetic balance and improved mood state.     

城市热岛的生态环境效应

城市热岛效应(Urbanheatislandeffect,简称UHI)是一种由于城市建筑及人类活动导致热量在城区空间范围内聚集的现象,是城市气候最显著的特征之一。热岛引起地表温度的提高,必将强烈地影响着城市生态系统的物流、能流,改变城市生态系统结构和功能,产生一系列生态环境效应,影响着城市气候、城市水文、城市土壤理化性质、城市大气环境、城市生物习性、城市物质循环、城市能量代谢以及城市居民健康等。提高能量利用效率、优化城市格局、建设绿色屋顶、采用高反射率地表材料以及增加城市绿地均可有效地控制城市热岛效应。利用遥感手段和数值模型技术,开展多尺度的城市热岛生态环境效应研究,为改善城市生态环境、实现城市可持续发展提供理论依据。     

Plant species composition in relation to green cover configuration and function of urban parks in Beijing, China

Parks, as one specific type of urban open space, play important roles in the conservation of urban biodiversity and provision of recreational services for local residents. As there is a lack of specific insight into park plant species composition in relation to park features, 24 sample parks within the inner city of Beijing, the capital of China, were studied by stratified random plot sampling of their tree, shrub, and herbaceous communities, respectively, in order to investigate how human activities have influenced park green cover configuration and floristic characteristics. The quantitative correlation of species richness and the park green cover indices (patch size, shape, etc.) were studied. The importance value index for plant species (trees, shrubs, and herbaceous species) of each park was calculated. The two-way indicator species analysis approach (TWINSPAN) was applied to classify the 24 parks into different groups based on their species assemblages. Two-hundred and eighty-eight species were recorded within the 24 study parks, belonging to 184 genera and 72 families dominated by Gramineae, Compositae, and Leguminosae. Among all the recorded species, 41% are exotic. The species occurrence, abundance and diversity vary significantly among different parks. Besides the positive correlation (R=0.505, P<0.05) between herbaceous species abundance and the park green cover size, no other significant relations were found between the species abundance and other indices of park green cover configuration. Remarkably, the TWINSPAN classification resulted in a good discrimination between park functional types and the variation in their species assemblage. For the parks of similar age (development history) or landscape design, their species assemblages show more similarity. The methodology adopted and results can be employed to improve baseline information on urban plant ecology and support the setting of priorities for future park management and vegetation protection.     

南京城市街区湿球温度时空变化特征及其影响因子

全球气候变化和局地城市热岛加剧了城市热胁迫问题,但针对城市街区的研究仍不多见。湿球温度指示气温和湿度的综合效应,能更准确地反映人体热舒适度。本研究以南京市江北新区为对象,在不同时段、季节和天空状况下,基于移动观测方法获取气温、相对湿度和地理信息等数据,分析了街区尺度湿球温度的时空分布特征;结合天空状况、地表覆盖和城市形态指标(天穹可见度),探究了城市街区湿球温度的影响机制。结果表明: 1)南京城市街区湿球温度的时空特征与气温较为一致;与水汽压相比,气温对湿球温度的变化起主导作用;该地区湿球温度的极端高值主要是由于气温和水汽压协同增长所致。2)天穹可见度在白天与湿球温度呈显著正相关,夜间为负相关关系。植被覆盖比率的增加能够降低湿球温度,不透水面则呈现相反的作用。阴天条件下,湿球温度明显降低并且空间分布更均匀。3)植被和不透水面对湿球温度的水平尺度效应存在昼夜和季节差异,并且在夜间这一效应对天空状况更敏感;与植被相比,冬季夜间不透水面的影响范围比夏、秋季更大;两者对湿球温度的水平尺度效应与气温一致。研究结果可为改善和优化城市街区热环境、缓解城市热胁迫提供有效的科学支持和理论依据。     

Air temperature and humidity and human comfort index of some city parks of Mexico City

A series of air temperature (Ta) and relative humidity (HR) measurements were carried out in five urban parks and their surroundings in Mexico City. It was found thatTa is lower andRH is higher inside the parks. There were differences (P<0.05) between the parks and surroundings in air temperature, relative humidity, vapour pressure (e), vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and the thermohygrometric human comfort index (THI).Ta differences were more marked during the early afternoon. Maximum differences ofTa, e, andDPV were 5.6°C, 0.6 and 1.2 mbar. There is strong evidence that the magnitude of differences inTa are directly proportional to the surface of urban parks.     

The urban heat island in a small city in coastal Portugal

This project arose from the need to study the phenomenon of the urban heat island, since only by recognising this phenomenon can we moderate it to improve the human and urban environments. Not only big cities develop urban heat islands. This study detected the presence and recorded the characteristics of an urban heat island in the small coastal city of Aveiro, Portugal. The study was developed through the scheduled measurements of air temperature and the analysis of the geographical, meteorological and urban conditions. The form and intensity of Aveiro’s heat island are a response to the interaction of three principal factors: the urban morphology (the hottest zones in the city are those with the tallest and the highest density of buildings, without green spaces and with intense generation of heat from traffic, commerce and services); the meteorological conditions (the intensity of the island is at its maximum when the sky is totally clear and there is no wind, and at its minimum in those situations when there is atmospheric instability, such as wind, cloud and precipitation); and the proximity of the coastal lagoon (which borders the city to the west and northwest and moderates seasonal temperatures. The urban heat island influences the comfort and health of its inhabitants, thus urban planning is very important in the moderation and prevention of this phenomenon. Received: 7 July 1999 / Revised: 24 April 2000 / Accepted: 26 April 2000     

城市绿地的生态环境效应研究进展

工业化的快速发展和城市化进程的加剧,使得城市生态环境的破坏和污染愈来愈严重,加速了城市的“生态环境危机”.城市绿地能够通过植被的光合作用、吸收作用、隔离阻挡作用、蒸腾以及蒸散作用改善城市的生态环境.目前研究主要集中在降温、增湿、固碳释氧、降噪、抗污染、生物多样性保护等6个方面.关于城区绿地对6种生态环境要素的改善程度、影响范围、机理问题以及不同植被种类生态环境效应的差异情况等,国内外学者都进行了大量详细的研究.基于传统实地观测数据进行城市绿地的生态环境效应研究是目前主要使用的研究方法,部分学者开始使用遥感技术手段研究城区绿地的降温增湿效应.在总结和分析前人研究成果的基础上,从研究内容的不同着手,主要总结并系统评估了目前关于城市绿地6种生态环境效应的研究,为今后相关研究提供参考.     

沈阳城市森林小气候特征的研究

研究了沈阳城市森林不同生长期小气候温湿日变化特征.结果表明,城市森林不同生长期气温日变化趋势是早晨气温最低、午后气温最高,但受森林生态环境的影响,最高峰比太阳辐射峰值迟滞约2 h.一年四季气温日变幅为森林停止生长期(休眠期)＞生长季前期＞生长季后期＞生长季中期.森林生长季前期、中期、后期土壤温度为白天高于夜间,而停止生长期(休眠期)为夜间高于白天.不同生长期土温日振幅为上层(20 cm)＞中层(40 cm)＞下层(80 cm),而同一层不同生长期的土温日振幅为土层深20 cm时,生长季前期＞生长季后期＞停止生长期(休眠期)＞生长季中期;土层深＞40 cm(80 cm)时,生长季前期＞停止生长期(休眠期)＞生长季后期＞生长季中期.城市森林空气相对湿度日变化与气温和地温日变化则夜间的空气相对湿度高于白天,但不同生长期相对湿度值日变化为生长季中期＞生长季后期＞停止生长期(休眠期)＞生长季前期.     

Modelling radiation fluxes in simple and complex environments—application of the RayMan model

The most important meteorological parameter affecting the human energy balance during sunny weather conditions is the mean radiant temperature T_mrt. It considers the uniform temperature of a surrounding surface giving off blackbody radiation, which results in the same energy gain of a human body given the prevailing radiation fluxes. This energy gain usually varies considerably in open space conditions. In this paper, the model ‘RayMan’, used for the calculation of short- and long-wave radiation fluxes on the human body, is presented. The model, which takes complex urban structures into account, is suitable for several applications in urban areas such as urban planning and street design. The final output of the model is, however, the calculated T_mrt, which is required in the human energy balance model, and thus also for the assessment of the urban bioclimate, with the use of thermal indices such as predicted mean vote (PMV), physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) and standard effective temperature (SET*). The model has been developed based on the German VDI-Guidelines 3789, Part II (environmental meteorology, interactions between atmosphere and surfaces; calculation of short- and long-wave radiation) and VDI-3787 (environmental meteorology, methods for the human-biometeorological evaluation of climate and air quality for urban and regional planning. Part I: climate). The validation of the results of the RayMan model agrees with similar results obtained from experimental studies.     

热岛效应对植物生长的影响以及叶片形态构成的适应性

热岛效应是一种由于地表覆盖改变及人类活动导致的热量在城区空间范围内聚集的现象,是城市气候最明显的特征之一,随着越来越多的人口涌入城市以及伴随而生的超大城市的出现,城市热岛效应将更加凸显,这种环境温度的升高必将影响到各种景观园林植物的生理状态乃至形态结构。选取以生长在热岛点和有大量绿植覆盖的低温点的两种典型园林植物大叶黄杨和丁香作为实验材料,研究了这两种植物叶在城市热岛效应影响下,在热岛点和低温点中的形态特征。结果表明,在热岛点环境温度和二氧化碳浓度显著高于低温点,但其他环境要素差异并不显著。热岛点的大叶黄杨和丁香叶生物量分别是低温点的1.6倍和1.4倍。进一步研究表明,相较于低温点,在热岛点生长的植物叶表现出较低的比叶面积、单位重量和单位面积叶氮含量。生物量在向各部分组织分配时,热岛点的植物叶倾向于将更多的生物量分配给叶肉部分,而减少了对叶柄的生物量投入。     

城市湿地公园建成后综合效绩评估——以广州大观湿地为例

以广州大观湿地公园为研究对象,在建立了综合指标评价体系的基础上,通过水质监测、问卷调研、植被样方调查等方法,对大观湿地公园的生态绩效和社会绩效进行评估,并为未来的湿地公园设计提供指导。评估结果显示:湿地公园初步达到了生态和社会效益兼顾的目标。公园内生境类型多样,植物种类达32科54属66种,Shannon-Wiener指数分析表明,草本植物多样性丰富,乔木层由于人工种植原因多样性较差。公园的串联式坑塘系统具有显著的污染物净化效果,可以明显降低汇流区的氮素含量,但其水质净化效果并未达到最大化。公园建成后吸引了大量周边居民的来访,整体满意度较高,但由于有外界污水持续混入上游坑塘,导致游客对上游坑塘水质的评价较差。在以上分析基础上,提出对未来的城市湿地公园设计的指导建议。