Age and sex composition of small ruminants at Nouakchott markets, Mauritania

A survey of species, breeds, sex and age composition of sheep and goats offered for sale was made at Nouakchott (Mauritania) livestock markets. Some 82.8% of animals presented at the markets were sheep and 95% of these were of the Short-haired Maure breed, the remainder being Long-haired Maure. Goats of the Sahel breed comprised 81% of all animals of this species, the others being Sahara and Eastern Dwarf types, but goats represented only 17.2% of all animals brought to market. Castrated Short-haired Maure sheep were 63.6% of this breed whereas castrates of Long-haired Maure sheep were 40.6% of the total. There were significantly more castrates than entire males presented for sale for sheep but the reverse was the case for goats. Entire males of both species were sold at younger ages than castrates and males and castrates combined were sold at younger ages than females. This study has provided some indications of the types of stock offered for sale but further studies at peak sale times would allow more detailed analysis. Such an analysis should be coupled with a survey of owners/herders and of traders in order to determine the factors operating on market forces.     

Molecular analysis of tick-borne protozoan and rickettsial pathogens in small ruminants from two South African provinces

Tick-borne protozoan and rickettsial diseases are a major threat to livestock in tropical and sub-tropical regions of Africa. In this study we investigated the presence and distribution of Theileria spp., Babesia ovis, Anaplasma ovis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia ruminantium and SFG Rickettsia in sheep and goats from Free State and KwaZulu-Natal provinces. A total of 91 blood samples were screened in this study, 61 from goats and 30 from sheep. PCR assay was conducted using primers based on Theileria spp. 18S rRNA, Babesia ovis (BoSSU rRNA), Anaplasma ovis (AoMSP4), Anaplasma phagocytophilum epank1, Ehrlichia ruminantium pCS20 and SFG Rickettsia OmpA. Overall infection rates of Theileria spp., Anaplasma ovis and Ehrlichia ruminantium were 18 (19.8%), 33 (36.3%) and 13 (14.3%), respectively. The co-infection of two pathogens were detected in 17/91 (18.7%) of all samples, goats having higher rates of co-infection compared to sheep. Phylogenetic tree analysis sequence of pCS20 gene of E. ruminantium of this study was found to be in the same clade with Kumm2 and Riverside strains both from South Africa. The phylogram of SSU rRNA of Theileria ovis had longer branch length compared to all other sequences most of which were from Asia and Middle East. This study provides important data for understanding the tick-borne diseases occurrence in the study area and it is expected to improve the approach for the diagnosis and control of these diseases.     

Escherichia coli O157:H7 colonization in small domestic ruminants

Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 was first implicated in human disease in the early 1980s, with ruminants cited as the primary reservoirs. Preliminary studies indicated cattle to be the sole source of E. coli O157:H7 outbreaks in humans; however, further epidemiological studies soon demonstrated that E. coli O157:H7 was widespread in other food sources and that a number of transmission routes existed. More recently, small domestic ruminants (sheep and goats) have emerged as important sources of E. coli O157:H7 human infection, particularly with the widespread popularity of petting farms and the increased use of sheep and goat food products, including unpasteurized cheeses. Although the colonization and persistence characteristics of E. coli O157:H7 in the bovine host have been studied intensively, this is not the case for small ruminants. Despite many similarities to the bovine host, the pathobiology of E. coli O157:H7 in small domestic ruminants does appear to differ significantly from that described in cattle. This review aims to critically review the current knowledge regarding colonization and persistence of E. coli O157:H7 in small domestic ruminants, including comparisons with the bovine host where appropriate.     

Zoogeography of the herpetofauna of Botswana and its management implications

A taxonomic analysis of data reveals that there are more reptilian than amphibian species in Botswana and that the number of reptilian species generally decreases from the mesic north to the arid southern part of the country. Squamates (lizards and snakes) compose the majority of the reptilian fauna. An analysis of community reveals that the area of Botswana north of the 22° parallel is the most important in terms of faunal diversity, and thus special consideration in terms of fauna conservation and management is warranted. Results show that climatic conditions in Botswana have profound affects on the distribution of herpetofaunal species.

Résumé

Une analyse taxonomique des données révèle qu'il y a plus d'espèces de reptiles que d'amphibiens au Botswana et que le nombre d'espèces de reptiles diminue généralement du nord vers le sud aride du pays. Les squamates (lézards et serpents) composent la majeure partie de la faune reptilienne. Une analyse des communautés révèle que la partie du Botswana au nord du 22^e parallèle est la plus importante en terme de diversité faunistique et que ceci justifie une considération spéciale pour la conservation et la gestion de la faune. Les résultats montrent que les conditions climatiques au Botswana affectent profondément la distribution des espèces de reptiles.     

Antibody-based diagnosis of small ruminant lentivirus infection in seminal fluid

Antibody-based diagnosis of small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs) has been efficiently achieved using serum and milk, but not semen, for which polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been proposed as a confirmatory technique. This work, involving 296 ovine (Ovis aries) and caprine (Capra hircus) semen donors, investigates whether seminal fluid (SF) can be reliably used in antibody-based SRLV diagnosis. First, a gold standard was established to assess the infection status and determine the sensitivity and specificity of three commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) in serum testing using Western blot and PCR as confirmatory tests. For SF testing, both gold standard and serum testing results were used as reference. The performance of SF testing was affected not only by the ELISA assay sensitivity (related to antigen spectrum) compared with that of the gold standard (as it occurred in serum testing) but also by SF sample quality and SF working dilution. Nonturbid SF samples, commonly collected in artificial insemination centers (AICs), were required. Compared with serum, SF testing had a decreased sensitivity in two of the ELISA assays (with original serum working dilutions ≤1/20 in serum testing) but reached a similar sensitivity (and specificity) in the assay designed to work at the highest serum dilution (1/500). A SF concentration of about 1/2 (250-fold that used in serum testing) was found optimal in this assay, yielding highly repeatable results that were in almost perfect agreement with those of serum testing (κ ± SE, 0.91 ± 0.81). Thus, SF ELISA can be reliably applied in antibody-based SRLV diagnosis. This information may be useful to control infection in AICs and animal and semen trade programs requiring health-certified quality of semen donors.     

Selecting browse plants to supplement cassava peel-based diet for peri-urban small ruminants

Cassava (Manihot esculanta) peel is routinely fed to ruminants in Ghana and most parts of Africa, but the low protein content and lack of suitable protein supplements limits its full exploitation in small ruminant production systems. This study assessed the suitability (degradation characteristics and synchrony between nitrogen release and organic matter degradation) of the leaves of three browse plants, chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius), ficus (Ficus exasperata), and terminalia (Terminalia catappa), as supplements for sheep fed a cassava peel-based diet. Four ruminally fistulated Djallonké wethers were used in a randomized complete block design experiment to determine ruminal disappearance of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM) and nitrogen (N) from the three leaves and from cassava peels. For chaya, ficus and terminalia, OM content was 93.1%, 83.8% and 90.3% (P < 0.05), respectively, whereas N was 3.4%, 3.1% and 1.7% (P < 0.05, DM basis). The OM and N content in cassava peel was 95.3% and 1.0%, respectively. Ruminal DM disappearance of chaya, ficus, terminalia and cassava peel after 24 h of incubation was 79.0%, 36.4%, 48.0%, and 43.0% (P < 0.05), respectively. The ratio of N released from chaya leaves to OM from cassava peel was 1:16 or lower during 24 h ruminal incubation, compared to 1:31 during the first 8 h and 1:25 after 12 h of incubation of ficus leaves. The ratio for terminalia leaves from 4 to 24 h of incubation ranged between 1:51 and 1:63. The high N content and ideal synchronous release of N and OM ratio of 1:33 (N:OM) made ficus leaves the most suitable supplement among the three browse leaves, with the potential to supply adequate N to optimize ruminal microbial protein synthesis in sheep on a cassava peel-based diet.     

Sexual behavior of domesticated ruminants

Domesticated ruminants have lived in close association with humans for thousands of years and knowledge of the behavior of these organisms has contributed to their successful domestication, as well as to the management of animals in captivity, both extensive and intensive. Here we describe the reproductive behavioral endocrinology of cattle, goats and sheep. These relatively large and tame animals provide opportunities to conduct a wide range of behavioral studies from short-term to longitudinal or developmental in nature. Highlighted is some of the work from our laboratory describing the social, environmental and endocrine factors that influence the expression of sexual behavior in male and female goats.     

c-AMP plasmatic levels in Scrapie infected sheep and goats from Sicily

Scrapie is a fatal degenerative disease of the central nervous system of sheep and goats. Adenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate (c-AMP) plays a key role in many biological processes, membrane permeability, lipogenesis, metabolism, neuronal activity, muscular contraction, cellular differentiation, hormonal and enzymatic activities, proteins synthesis, etc. and in inflammation, immune processes, cellular growth regulation and carcinogenesis. In this work the c-AMP plasmatic levels in Scrapie infected sheep and goats were studied. The study was carried out on 31 sheep of Comisana breed and 35 autochthonous goats belonging to two farms from Sicily. The evaluation of c-AMP levels in blood samples, taken from the jugular vein, was carried out by radioimmunoassay (RIANEN” c-AMP 125 - Dupont NEN Diagnostic). The results obtained show significantly higher c-AMP levels in animals with Scrapie (40.88 ± 2.08 pmol/L in sheeps; 43.54 ± 1.62 pmol/L in goats) than healthy animals used as controls (26.45 ± 0.76 pmol/L in sheeps; 28.17 ± 1.58 pmol/L in goats). The increase in c-AMP plasmatic levels could be correlated to alterations of central nervous system functioning and variations of neurotransmitters (NA, Ach, GABA, etc.) responsible for behavioural and neurological changes in Scrapie infected sheep and goats.     

Nitrogen supply in cattle coupled with appropriate supply of utilisable crude protein at the duodenum,a precursor to metabolisable protein

The overall objective of this study was to calculate the amount of nitrogen (N) that cattle feed must contain in order to utilise the potential supply of utilisable crude protein at the duodenum provided by their energy intake without incurring a negative N balance, that is, without having to break down body protein. For this purpose, the literature was screened for measurements of net degradation and renal excretion of urea as well as N balances (N intake, faecal N and urinary N) in ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats) fed diets with varying N concentrations. Irreversible loss of N from the body urea pool increased with increasing N intake, but net degradation of urea as a proportion of irreversible loss decreased concurrently. Faecal N appeared not to be influenced by N intake and exceeded 11 g/kg dry matter intake (DMI) only in 7% of the data sets available. Urinary non-urea-N rarely exceeded 4 g/kg DMI and appeared independent of N intake. Urinary urea-N showed a clear dependence of N intake, and it is concluded that 1 g N/kg DMI is sufficient for compensating inevitable N losses in the form of urinary urea. In conclusion, ruminant rations should contain the following N concentrations (per kg DM) to account for obligatory losses: 11 g for compensating losses as faecal N, 4 g for compensating losses as urinary non-urea-N and 1 g for compensating inevitable losses as urinary urea-N. The derived recommendations should be helpful for limiting N excretion where this is desirable for ecological reasons.     

Influence of dietary calcium and phosphorus supply on epithelial phosphate transport in preruminant goats

P homeostasis affected by high or low Ca and/or P supply in preruminant goats was characterized by balance studies in vivo. The main excretion pathway was the renal P_i excretion whose extent was modulated by variations in dietary P and/or Ca supply. Faecal P excretion remained low irrespective of dietary regimen. The balance data were combined with respective in vitro data on P_i transport properties and their adaptation in response to changes in dietary Ca and/or P intake. Therefore, P_i transport capacities were determined by P_i uptake into brush border membrane vesicles of jejunum and kidney. Epithelial P_i transporters were determined semiquantitatively by northern and western blot analyses in jejunum, kidney and salivary gland. Renal P_i transport was downregulated by doubling dietary P supply while doubling both, Ca and P as well as restrictive Ca at unchanged P led to slight, but not significant reductions in renal P_i transport. Jejunal P_i transport was reduced by P excess (doubling P and doubling both, Ca and P), but only NaPi IIb protein expression was significantly diminished. In conclusion, the significance of epithelial adaptation to dietary Ca and P supply for P homeostasis is discussed in preruminant goats.     

Prevalence and Determinants of Adult Under-Nutrition in Botswana

Background

To estimate the prevalence and determinants of adult under-nutrition in Botswana.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was conducted where a nationally representative sample of people aged 20 to 49 years was used for the analysis. The outcome measure of under-nutrition was measured as BMI<18.5 kg/m².

Results

Of the total sample, 19.5% of males and 10.1% of females were underweight (BMI<18.5 kg/m²). The wealth index showed that 30.9% of the adult population with low a BMI belongs to the poorest 20% of the households while only 9.6% comprised of the richest 20% of the households. Results from logistic regression analysis indicated that both adult men and women who had no education and belonged to the low socioeconomic group had a statistically significant association with low BMI. Among the female adult population, being young and not having watched TV at least once a week were significantly associated with low BMI. For the male adult population, being unmarried was significantly associated with low BMI.

Conclusions

Programme interventions aimed at improving the nutritional status of adults can use these findings to make appropriate policy, to establish baselines and study nutritional changes over time and its covariates.     

Pyrosequencing analysis identifies discrete populations of Haemonchus contortus from small ruminants

The genus Haemonchus consists of blood-sucking parasitic nematodes in the abomasum of ruminants. Members of this genus are responsible for extensive production losses, particularly of small ruminants in the tropics but are also found in temperate regions. In this study, we examined the internal transcribed spacers-1 and -2 of rRNA in Haemonchus spp. The rRNA region spanning the internal transcribed spacers-1, -2 and the 5.8S rRNA gene was amplified by PCR from each of 10 worms from Swedish sheep, a Swedish goat and Kenyan sheep. The fragments were sequenced and examined with respect to genetic differences fixed among the three isolates. These and additional worms were further analysed with Pyrosequencing technology. This technique allowed us to rapidly analyse 110 individuals in three putative polymorphic nucleotide positions that were initially identified with dideoxy sequencing. The geographical isolates could to a large extent be genetically distinguished, but none of the polymorphic positions were consistent among all individuals within each isolate. Furthermore an alignment of our sequences and a consensus sequence published for Haemonchus contortus revealed two differences in positions 123 and 196 in internal transcribed spacers-2. Although these positions were previously reported as heterogenic, no polymorphism was detected among the 30 worms sequenced in the present study. Modelling of the internal transcribed spacers-2 secondary structure based on our data also identified a new putative long-range interaction. The isolates are best described as populations. In conclusion, consistent differences were not identified and the studied isolates are therefore best described as discrete populations. This study also reveals for the first time the potential of Pyrosequencing technology as a tool in the analysis of nematode population genetics.     

The multidimensional nature of biodiversity and social dynamics and implications for contemporary rural livelihoods in remote Kalahari settlements, Botswana

Despite rapid socio-economic development in Kalahari drylands, contemporary research suggests that biodiversity remains important as a component of the complex portfolio of livelihood strategies, as a real and perceived safety net in times of stress, and a key factor of cultural identity. The degree to which the spatially and temporally dynamic nature of biodiversity in drylands influences livelihoods is, however, little studied, particularly in socially complex contemporary rural settlements. Greater understanding in this area is required to allow better-informed design and implementation of rural development, poverty alleviation and conservation initiatives. This is particularly true in the light of predicted increases in environmental dynamism with climate change. An interdisciplinary approach was used in two environmentally and socially distinct dryland settlements in Botswana, to investigate the extent to which the dynamic biodiverse setting influences contemporary rural livelihoods. Results illustrate that biodiversity, particularly its dynamics, is of critical contemporary importance to rural settlement livelihoods, particularly in times of inner settlement scarcity. Entitlements to biodiversity dynamics were, however, bound up by complex settlement-specific social, economic and political factors. Unless such contextual within-settlement dynamics are understood, the relative importance of biodiversity in rural development and poverty alleviation strategies in contemporary Kalahari drylands may be undermined.     

Effects of large herbivores and fire on the regeneration of Acacia erioloba woodlands in Chobe National Park, Botswana

Acacia erioloba woodlands provide important forage and shade for wildlife in northern Botswana. Mortality of mature trees caused by browsing elephants has been well documented but the lack of regeneration of new trees has received little attention. Annual growth of new shoots and changes in height were measured to determine the influence of elephants and small ungulate browsers, rainfall and fire on the growth and survival of established A. erioloba seedlings from 1995 to 1997 in the Savuti area of Chobe National Park. All above‐ground vegetation was removed from 40% of established seedlings in 1995 and 28% in 1997 by browsing elephants, and the mean height of remaining seedlings decreased from >550 mm to <300 mm. When seedlings browsed by kudu, impala and steenbok but not elephants are considered, mean seedling height increased <50 mm per year, even though mean new shoot growth remaining at the end of the dry season was 100–200 mm. Fires burned portions of the study area in 1993 and 1997, killing above‐ground vegetation, but most established A. erioloba seedlings survived, producing coppice growth from roots. While elephants and fire caused the greatest reduction in established seedling height and number, small browsers suppressed growth, keeping seedlings vulnerable to fire and delaying growth to reproductive maturity.     

The incidence of giant spike bursts and repetitive bursts of action potentials in the ovine small bowel before and after cholecystokinin administration

Giant spike bursts (GSBs) or giant contractions (GCs) and repetitive bursts of action potentials (RBAPs) are less common motility patterns as compared to the migrating motor complex (MMC), fed pattern or minute rhythm. They are present in small and large intestines in various animal species. Their occurrence in ruminants has not been satisfactorily evidenced. Thus, the aim of this study was to present the incidence of these patterns in the ovine small bowel before and after different doses of cholecystokinin octapeptide (CCK-OP) and cerulein as well as to demonstrate the motor correlates of RBAPs.Six sheep equipped with electrodes in the antrum and entire small intestine and with duodenal strain gauge force transducer were used. In fasted and non-fasted animals, continuous myoelectrical and motor recordings were performed before and after the slow injection of cholecystokinin octapeptide (20, 200 and 2000 ng/kg i.v.) and cerulein (1, 10 and 100 ng/kg i.v.) during phase 2 MMC. The incidence of GSBs and RBAPs was assessed and these patterns arrived before and after Cholecystokinin (CCK). During the control period RBAPs were most frequently observed in the ileum. GSBs and RBAPs were induced by the highest dose of the hormones. RBAPs exhibited the motor correlates and their tonic component was more pronounced following CCK-OP and cerulein injection.It is concluded that GSBs and RBAPs occur in the small intestine and the administration of CCK peptides further increases their incidence.