Nucleo-cytoplasmic cycling of the vitamin D receptor in the enterocyte-like cell line, Caco-2

We examined the effects of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1,25(OH)(2)D(3)) on the distribution and mobility of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) in the enterocyte-like Caco-2 cell. Confocal microscopy showed that a green fluorescent protein-vitamin D receptor (GFP-VDR) fusion protein is predominantly nuclear (58%) and it does not associate with the apical or basolateral membrane of proliferating or polarized, differentiated cells. In contrast to the previously studied cell types, neither endogenous VDR nor GFP-VDR levels accumulate in the nucleus following 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) treatment (100 nM, 30 min). However, in nuclear photobleaching experiments nuclear GFP-VDR import was significantly increased by 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) during both an early (0-5 min) and later (30-35 min) period (20% per 5 min). Compared to the natural ligand, nuclear import of GFP-VDR was 60% lower in cells treated with the 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) analog, 1-alpha-fluoro-16-ene-20-epi-23-ene-26,27-bishomo-25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) (Ro-26-9228, 5 min, 100 nM). Downstream events like ligand-induced association of VDR with chromatin at 1 h and the accumulation of CYP24 mRNA were significantly lower in Ro-26-9228 treated cells compared to 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) (60 and 95% lower, respectively). Collectively our data are consistent with a role for ligand-induced nuclear VDR import in receptor activation. In addition, ligand-dependent VDR nuclear import appears to be balanced by export, thus accounting for the lack of nuclear VDR accumulation even when VDR import is significantly elevated.     

Novel roles of retinoid X receptor (RXR) and RXR ligand in dynamically modulating the activity of the thyroid hormone receptor/RXR heterodimer

Many members of the type II nuclear receptor subfamily function as heterodimers with the retinoid X receptor (RXR). A permissive heterodimer (e.g. peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor/RXR) allows for ligand binding by both partners of the receptor complex. In contrast, RXR has been thought to be incapable of ligand binding in a nonpermissive heterodimer, such as that of thyroid hormone receptor (TR)/RXR, where it has been referred to as a silent partner. However, we recently presented functional evidence suggesting that RXR in the TR/RXR heterodimer can bind its natural ligand 9-cis-RA in cells. Here we extended our study of the interrelationship of TR and RXR. We examined the potential modulatory effect of RXR and its ligand on the activity of TR, primarily using a Gal4-TR chimera. This study led to several novel and unexpected findings: 1) heterodimerization of apo-RXRalpha (in the absence of 9-cis-RA) with Gal4-TR inhibits T3-mediated transactivation; 2) the inhibition of Gal4-TR activity by RXRalpha is further enhanced by 9-cis-RA; 3) two different RXR subtypes (alpha and beta) differentially modulate the activity of Gal4-TR; 4) the N-terminal A/B domains of RXR alpha and beta are largely responsible for their differential modulation of TR activity; and 5) the RXR ligand 9-cis-RA appears to differentially affect T3-mediated transactivation from the Gal4-TR/RXRalpha (which is inhibited by 9-cis-RA) and TRE-bound TR/RXRalpha (which is further activated by 9-cis-RA) heterodimers. Taken together, these results further support our recent proposal that the RXR component in a TR/RXR heterodimer is not silent and, more importantly, reveal novel aspects of regulation of the activity of the TR/RXR heterodimer by RXR and RXR ligand.     

Functional evidence for retinoid X receptor (RXR) as a nonsilent partner in the thyroid hormone receptor/RXR heterodimer

Many members of the thyroid hormone/retinoid receptor subfamily (type II nuclear receptors) function as heterodimers with the retinoid X receptor (RXR). In heterodimers which are referred to as permissive, such as peroxisome proliferator activated receptor/RXR, both partners can bind cognate ligands and elicit ligand-dependent transactivation. In contrast, the thyroid hormone receptor (TR)/RXR heterodimer is believed to be nonpermissive, where RXR is thought to be incapable of ligand binding and is often referred to as a silent partner. In this report, we used a sensitive derepression assay system that we developed previously to reexamine the TR/RXR interrelationship. We provide functional evidence suggesting that in a TR/RXR heterodimer, the RXR component can bind its ligand in vivo. Ligand binding by RXR does not appear to directly activate the TR/RXR heterodimer; instead, it leads to a (at least transient or dynamic) dissociation of a cellular inhibitor(s)/corepressor(s) from its TR partner and thus may serve to modulate unliganded TR-mediated repression and/or liganded TR-mediated activation. Our results argue against the current silent-partner model for RXR in the TR/RXR heterodimer and reveal an unexpected aspect of cross regulation between TR and RXR.