Is nectar reabsorption restricted by the stalk cells of floral and extrafloral nectary trichomes?

Reabsorption is a phase of nectar dynamics that occurs concurrently with secretion; it has been described in floral nectaries that exude nectar through stomata or unicellular trichomes, but has not yet been recorded in extrafloral glands. Apparently, nectar reabsorption does not occur in multicellular secretory trichomes (MST) due to the presence of lipophilic impregnations – which resemble Casparian strips – in the anticlinal walls of the stalk cells. It has been assumed that these impregnations restrict solute movement within MST to occur unidirectionally and exclusively by the symplast, thereby preventing nectar reflux toward the underlying nectary tissues. We hypothesised that reabsorption is absent in nectaries possessing MST. The fluorochrome lucifer yellow (LYCH) was applied to standing nectar of two floral and extrafloral glands of distantly related species, and then emission spectra from nectary sections were systematically analysed using confocal microscopy. Passive uptake of LYCH via the stalk cells to the nectary tissues occurred in all MST examined. Moreover, we present evidence of nectar reabsorption in extrafloral nectaries, demonstrating that LYCH passed the stalk cells of MST, although it did not reach the deepest nectary tissues. Identical (control) experiments performed with neutral red (NR) demonstrated no uptake of this stain by actively secreting MST, whereas diffusion of NR did occur in plasmolysed MST of floral nectaries at the post‐secretory phase, indicating that nectar reabsorption by MST is governed by stalk cell physiology. Interestingly, non‐secretory trichomes failed to reabsorb nectar. The role of various nectary components is discussed in relation to the control of nectar reabsorption by secretory trichomes.     

Anatomical and ultrastructural changes of the floral nectary ofPisum sativum L. during flower development

Summary The floral nectary ofPisum sativum L. is situated on the receptacle at the base of the gynoecium. The gland receives phloem alone which departed the vascular bundles supplying the staminal column. Throughout the nectary, only the companion cells of the phloem exhibited wall ingrowths typical of transfer cells. Modified stomata on the nectary surface served as exits for nectar, but stomatal pores developed well before the commencement of secretion. Furthermore, stomatal pores on the nectary usually closed by occlusion, not by guard-cell movements. Pore occlusion was detected most frequently in post-secretory and secretory glands, and less commonly in pre-secretory nectaries. A quantitative stereological study revealed few changes in nectary fine structure between buds, flowers secreting nectar, and post-secretory flowers. Dissolution of abundant starch grains in plastids of subepidermal secretory cells when secretion commenced suggests that starch is a precursor of nectar carbohydrate production. Throughout nectary development, mitochondria were consistently the most plentiful organelle in both epidermal and subepidermal cells, and in addition to the relative paucity of dictyosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and their associated vesicles, the evidence suggests that floral nectar secretion inP. sativum is an energy-requiring (eccrine) process, rather that granulocrine.Abbreviations ER endoplasmic reticulum - GA glutaraldehyde - SEM scanning electron microscopy     

Anatomy and ultrastructure of the floral nectary in Peganum harmala L. (Nitrariaceae)

Anatomy and ultrastructure of the floral nectary of Peganum harmala L. were studied using light and transmission electron microscopy. The floral nectary was visible as a glabrous, regularly five‐lobed circular disc encircling the base of the ovary. Anatomically, it comprised a single layered epidermis and 15–20 layers of small, subepidermal secretory cells overlying several layers of large, ground parenchyma cells. The floral nectary was supplied by phloem and both sieve tubes and companion cells were found adjacent to the ground parenchyma. Based on our ultrastructural observations, plastids of secretory cells during the early stages of development were rich in starch grains and/or osmiophilic plastoglobuli, but these disappeared as nectar secretion progressed. The nectar appeared to exude through the modified stomata along symplastic and apoplastic routes. The abundant plastids and mitochondria suggest an eccrine mechanism of nectar secretion in P. harmala.     

Influence of elevated CO2 and ultraviolet-B radiation levels on floral nectar production: a nectary-morphological perspective

 Investigations of the effects of two global events – elevated CO₂ levels and enhanced ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation – on floral nectar production are reviewed from twelve dicotyledonous families. Furthermore, to allow comparisons between nectary morphology and nectar production in treated plants of these fifteen species, new data on floral nectary structure are provided for Malcolmia maritima (L.) R. Br. (Brassicaceae) and Scabiosa columbaria L. (Dipsacaceae). All but the last taxon possessed mesenchymatic floral nectaries with surface stomata. Few clear relationships existed between nectary morphology and various physiological responses to CO₂ or UV-B enrichment, indicating that species responded notwithstanding nectary structure itself. Overall, nectar-solute concentration was least affected by elevated CO₂ or UV-B radiation; consequently, changes in nectar volume were responsible for differences in nectar-sugar production per flower. Three species of Fabaceae experienced no change in floral nectar production upon exposure to elevated CO₂. To date, no study of enhanced UV-B radiation reported a consistent reduction in floral nectar production; three species of Brassicaceae responded differently, but various levels of ozone depletion were simulated. Experimentation with more taxa – including those possessing nectary types such as septal (gynopleural) nectaries (e.g. many monocotyledons) or aggregations of glandular trichomes – and expanding such physiological studies to species possessing extrafloral nectaries, are recommended. Received August 8, 2002; accepted November 23, 2002 Published online: June 2, 2003     

Pollen and ovule production, floral nectary structure, and nectar secretion dynamics in tristylous Lythrum salicaria L.

Lythrum salicaria L. (Lythraceae) is tristylous, each plant forming one of three floral morphs that differ in reciprocal placement of the stigma and two sets of anthers. Several reproductive traits were compared quantitatively among these morphs. Although mean pollen viability (??93%) and total pollen per mature, indehiscent anther within a staminal level (mean CV?=?11%) were constant, the patterns of mean pollen production per anther were complex, being significantly lowest in long stamens (1,490 grains) of the short-styled morph, but highest in intermediate stamens (3,590) of the long-styled morph. Overall, pollen production was greatest (38,200) in long-styled flowers and least (22,000) in short-styled ones. On the contrary, ovule quantities per ovary (mean 107) were similar among floral morphs; thus, pollen-to-ovule ratios spanned 192 (short-styled morph) to 364 (long-styled morph), relatively low values for a strictly xenogamous species. Each morph had a recessed annular nectary of similar dimensions encircling the ovary base, with equal numbers of modified stomata distributed uniformly on the nectary surface. Most stomata were solitary (94%), whereas 5% occurred in pairs and 1% of stomatal units had just one guard cell. During nectar secretion, about 16% of pores were closed plus 28% of pores were fully occluded. Similarly, nectar volumes and solute concentrations, peak rates of nectar secretion (mean 72?C79???g sugar?h^?1) at early afternoon, and the nectar??s sucrose prevalence [S/(G?+?F) ??4.3] were not significantly different among morphs. Based on these similarities in nectary structure and nectar-secretion dynamics, traits rarely studied in tristylous species, the preferential visitation of any particular floral morph of L. salicaria during nectar foraging by insects is unlikely. Indeed, lack of discrimination among morphs by potential pollinators may be a key tenet of successful sexual reproduction in tristylous species.     

Anatomy and ultrastructure of the floral nectary of Tontelea micrantha (Celastraceae: Salacioideae)

Among several native species of the Brazilian cerrado, a shrub, Tontelea micrantha, is exploited by traditional communities for the valuable oil extracted from its seeds, which has anti‐inflammatory properties. There have been no studies on the anatomy of its flower, and so the aim of this study is to describe the anatomy and ultrastructure of its floral nectary. Flower buds and flowers in anthesis were collected, fixed and processed for light and electron microscopy. The discoid floral nectary is composed of epidermis and a secretory parenchyma. Secretory cells are rich in plastids with starch grains and mitochondria. The nectar, sucrose dominant, is just sufficient to form a thin film on the nectary. The secretory cells show starch and oil droplets; however, during nectar production there is no evidence of hydrolysis of starch and some lipid reserves remain unchanged. Our results suggest a reduction in the amount of oil in the secretory cells during the secretory phase but this does not appear to imply a release of oil as a nectar component. In addition to maintaining part of the reserves, the lower frequency of organelles involved in nectar synthesis reinforces the hypothesis that phloem sap is the origin of nectar sugars. The tiny nectar film, released through modified stomata, is attractive to small insects such as flies. Considering the importance and intensity of use of T. micrantha in the Brazilian cerrado, we think that these data about its floral nectary can help to better explain its reproductive biology with positive impacts on its management and conservation.     

Characteristics of floral nectaries and nectar in two species of Crataegus (Rosaceae)

 The structure of floral nectaries of Crataegus coccinea and C. crus-galli was examined using light and scanning electron microscopy. The radial length of the floral nectary, measured from longitudinal sections of flowers, was 30% larger in C. crus-galli than in C. coccinea. For both Crataegus species the glandular tissue thickness was similar – approx. 400 μm. Also, the number of stomata per mm² of nectary surface in C. crus-galli was much higher (by 43%) than for C. coccinea. Stomata were situated in deep hollows. For both taxa the period of nectar secretion was 4 days. The mean quantity of total sugar in nectar per 10 flowers of C. crus-galli and C. coccinea was 3.87 mg and 0.33 mg, respectively. Received August 28, 2002; accepted December 17, 2002 Published online: June 2, 2003     

Nectary structure and nectar characteristics in someBignoniaceae

The nectary structure and chemical nectar composition of 15 species belonging to 12 genera ofBignoniaceae are analyzed. All taxa bear a conspicuous nuptial nectary surrounding the ovary base. The secretory tissue is mostly supplied by phloem branches. The stomata are located in the middle and upper part of the nectary epidermis with an homogeneous distribution. The nuptial nectary is proportionally large in relation to the ovary (15–30%), disregarding the nectary volume. Most species have extranuptial nectaries in both inner and outer surfaces of the calyx. Both kinds of nectaries lack a vascular tissue that straightly supplies them. Nuptial nectar concentration (wt/wt) ranges from 19 to 68%. Sugars and amino acids are found in all species. Half of the species have hexose predominant nectars, the remaining sucrose predominant. Phenols are detected in only three species, whereas reducing acids exclusively inTecoma stans. Alkaloids and lipids were never detected. Extranuptial nectar chemical composition is analyzed in two species:Dolichandra cynanchoides andPodranea ricasoliana. Bees constitute the main flower visitors of the species studied whereas hummingbirds were seen visiting three species. A correlation analysis is performed with the data obtained. There are a few significant correlations which indicate a parallel increase of three parameters: the longer the flower length, the more voluminous the nectary and the higher stomata number, independently of the floral biotype. Phenograms are obtained using 24 floral characters including nectary and nectar data. The clusters obtained do not reflect taxonomic relationships but are useful in the understanding of animal-plant interactions when the flower biotype is considered.This paper is based on a chapter of a doctoral thesis presented at the University of Córdoba (Argentina).     

The systematic significance of floral morphology,nectaries, and nectar concentration in epiphytic cacti of tribes Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae (Cactaceae)

A long-standing interest in cactus taxonomy has existed since the Linnaean generation, but an appreciation of the reproductive biology of cacti started early in the 1900s. Numerous studies indicate that plant reproductive traits provide valuable systematic information. Despite the extensive reproductive versatility and specializations in breeding systems coupled with the striking floral shapes, the reproductive biology of the Cactaceae has been investigated in approximately 10% of its species. Hence, the systematic value of architectural design and organization of internal floral parts has remained virtually unexplored in the family. This study represents the most extensive survey of flower and nectary morphology in the Cactaceae focusing on tribes Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae (subfamily Cactoideae). Our objectives were (1) to conduct comparative morphological analyses of flowers and floral nectaries and (2) to compare nectar solute concentration in these two tribes consisting of holo- and semi-epiphytic species. Flower morphology, nectary types, and sugar concentration of nectar have strong taxonomic implications at the tribal, generic and specific levels. Foremost, three types of nectaries were found, namely chamber nectary (with the open and diffuse subtypes), furrow nectary (including the holder nectary subtype), and annular nectary. All Hylocereeae species possess chamber nectaries, in which the nectarial tissue has both trichomes and stomata. The Rhipsalideae are distinguished by two kinds of floral nectaries: furrow and annular, both nectary types with stomata only. The annular nectary type characterizes the genus Rhipsalis. Nectar concentration is another significant taxonomic indicator separating the Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae and establishing trends linked to nectar sugar concentration and amount of nectar production in relation to flower size. There is an inverse relationship between flower size and amount of nectar production in the smaller Rhipsalideae flowers, in which nectar concentration is more than two-fold higher despite the smaller volume of nectar produced when compared to the large Hylocereeae flowers. Variability of nectary morphology and nectar concentration was also evaluated as potential synapomorphic characters in recent phylogenies of these tribes. In conclusion, our data provide strong evidence of the systematic value of floral nectaries and nectar sugar concentration in the Cactaceae, particularly at different taxonomic levels in the Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae.     

荆条花蜜腺发育解剖学研究

荆条（Ｖｉｔｅｘ ｃｈｉｎｅｎｓｉｓ Ｍｉｌｌ．）花蜜腺属于淀粉型子房蜜腺,呈圆筒状环绕于子房的基部。蜜腺外观上无特殊结构,表面有。由分泌表皮和泌蜜组织组成,包括分泌表皮、气孔器、泌蜜薄壁组织和维管束。密腺和子房壁起源相同。花蕾膨大期,泌蜜组织细胞中产生大液泡;露冠期,泌蜜组织中形成维管束;花蕾初放期,分泌表皮细胞分化形成气孔器,无气孔下室,淀粉粒的积累在此期达到高峰;盛花期,蜜腺中已无淀粉粒,密     

Nectaries and male-biased nectar production in protandrous flowers of a perennial umbellifer <Emphasis Type="Italic">Angelica sylvestris</Emphasis> L. (Apiaceae)

Nectar is the most common floral pollinator reward. In dichogamous species, floral nectar production rates can differ between sexual phases. We studied the structure of nectaries located on the stylopodium and nectar production in protandrous umbellifer Angelica sylvestris. Our study species produced nectar in both floral sexual phases. Nectar sugar concentration was low (on average 22 ± 11 %, mean ± SD) and the nectar hexose rich and composed of sucrose, glucose, fructose and a small amount of amino acids, including β-alanine, a non-protein amino acid. Although nectar composition and sugar concentration varied little between floral sexual phases, nectar production showed a threefold reduction during the stigma receptive period. This is in contrast to other studies of Apiaceae that have reported female-biased nectar production, but in the direction predicted by plant sexual selection theory, suggesting that in pollen-unlimited species, floral rewards mainly enhance male reproductive success. The structure of the nectary was similar at the two sexual stages investigated, and composed of a secretory epidermis and several layers of nectariferous and subsecretory parenchyma. The nectary cells were small, had large nuclei, numerous small vacuoles and dense, intensely staining cytoplasm with abundant endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and secretory vesicles. They contained abundant resin-like material that may potentially act as defence against microbes. Starch was rarely observed in the nectary cells, occurring predominantly at the female stage and mainly in guard and parenchyma cells in close proximity to stomata, and in subsecretory parenchyma. The main route of nectar release in A. sylvestris seems to be via modified stomata.     

Reversal of Abscisic Acid-Induced Stomatal Closure by trans-Cinnamic and p-Coumaric Acid

Abscisic acid (ABA)-induced increase in stomatal diffusive resistance (SDR) in excised leaves of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv Pencil Pod) and maize (Zea mays L. cv Golden Bantam) is inhibited by low concentrations of trans-cinnamic acid (TCA) (1 micromolar) and p-coumaric acid (PCA) (10 micromolar) when given together with ABA (10 micromolar) in the transpiration stream through the cut end of the petiole or leaf blade. A concentration effect is observed both in the ABA action and its reversal by phenolic acids. Leaves having attained a high diffusive resistance in ABA solution recover rapidly when transferred to water. ABA (10 micromolar) induced closure of the stomata in onion, Allium cepa L. and Vicia faba epidermal peels. This is associated with loss of K⁺ from guard cells. In the presence of TCA (10 micromolar) and PCA (10 micromolar) K⁺ is retained in the guard cells with open stomata. The dark closure of stomata is also inhibited by TCA and PCA. It is suggested that these phenolic acids may inhibit the ABA effect by competing with or acting on some ABA-specific site, probably located on the plasma membrane, regulating flux of K⁺ ions. A weak association of ABA with the plasma membrane is envisaged because of the rapid recovery obtained upon transferral of the leaves to water.     

Stomata Prioritize Their Responses to Multiple Biotic and Abiotic Signal Inputs

Stomata are microscopic pores in leaf epidermis that regulate gas exchange between plants and the environment. Being natural openings on the leaf surface, stomata also serve as ports for the invasion of foliar pathogenic bacteria. Each stomatal pore is enclosed by a pair of guard cells that are able to sense a wide spectrum of biotic and abiotic stresses and respond by precisely adjusting the pore width. However, it is not clear whether stomatal responses to simultaneously imposed biotic and abiotic signals are mutually dependent on each other. Here we show that a genetically engineered Escherichia coli strain DH5α could trigger stomatal closure in Vicia faba, an innate immune response that might depend on NADPH oxidase-mediated ROS burst. DH5α-induced stomatal closure could be abolished or disguised under certain environmental conditions like low [CO₂], darkness, and drought, etc. Foliar spraying of high concentrations of ABA could reduce stomatal aperture in high humidity-treated faba bean plants. Consistently, the aggressive multiplication of DH5α bacteria in Vicia faba leaves under high humidity could be alleviated by exogenous application of ABA. Our data suggest that a successful colonization of bacteria on the leaf surface is correlated with stomatal aperture regulation by a specific set of environmental factors.     

Anatomy and histochemistry of the nectaries of Rodriguezia venusta (Lindl.) Rchb. f. (Orchidaceae)

Orchidaceae is one of the largest angiosperm families. Although extensively studied, reports of anatomy of secretory structures of orchids are relatively scarce. Rodriguezia venusta is an epiphytic orchid occurring in Brazil and Peru that has floral and extrafloral nectaries. This study describes the structure and the histochemistry of these secretory structures. Floral and extrafloral nectary samples were obtained from R. venusta plants that were collected in a gallery forest in the State of Bahia, Brazil, and grown in a greenhouse. Theses samples were fixed and processed according to routine procedures in plant anatomy and histochemistry or for scanning electron microscopy. The extrafloral nectaries occur on the edge and sub-edge of young leaves and at the basal portion of bracts that subtend the floral buds. They are structurally very similar, being formed by a nectary parenchyma and a simple epidermis with stomata (“non-structured nectaries”). The floral nectary is inserted at the floral receptacle fused with the labellum base, between this structure and the two inferior connate sepals. This nectary consists of an epidermis with numerous specific nectar secreting trichomes, a subnectary and a nectary parenchyma abundantly supplied by vascular terminations. Its structure is complex and distinct from other floral nectaries described for Orchidaceae.     

Nectary and gender‐biased nectar production in dichogamous Chamaenerion angustifolium (L.) Scop. (Onagraceae)

In dichogamous plants, nectar characteristics (i.e. nectar amount and its composition) can differ between sexual phases. In the present study, we investigated the structural organization of the floral nectary, nectar production and carbohydrate composition in the protandrous Chamaenerion angustifolium (L.) Scop. (Onagraceae). The receptacular nectary consisted of an epidermis with numerous nectarostomata, several layers of photosynthetic secretory parenchyma, and subsecretory parenchyma. Nectariferous tissue was not directly vascularized and starch grains were rarely observed in the secretory cells, occurring exclusively in the guard cells of modified stomata. The nectar was released via nectarostomata. The floral nectar was hexose rich (32.8/39.1/28.1% glucose/fructose/sucrose) and the total concentration was constant throughout the anthesis (47% on average). However, contrasting patterns in nectar amount and carbohydrate composition between the floral sexual phases were observed. On average, female‐phased flowers produced 1.4‐fold more nectar than male‐phased flowers, and although the nectar was sucrose rich during the male phase, it was hexose rich during the female phase, suggesting sucrose hydrolysis.     

Floral traits affecting fire blight infection and management

Erwinia amylovora, the causative agent of fire blight, colonizes primarily the flowers of the sub-family Maloideae. Commercially important fruit tree species such as apple (Malus domestica) and pear (Pyrus communis) are also affected by the disease. Epiphytic bacterial populations develop on the stigma, from where the pathogen colonizes the hypanthium, aided by moisture. Under favorable conditions, nectar provides a rich medium for growth, which allows bacterial invasion of tissues through the stomata of the nectary. The paper reviews various floral traits that may play a role in the onset and progression of the infection. Flower age, stigma morphology and longevity, the size of epiphytic bacterial population, morphology of the hypanthium, anatomy of the nectary, dynamics of nectar secretion, as well as the volume, concentration and composition of the nectar are discussed in detail, comparing traits of susceptible versus tolerant apple and pear cultivars. Management programs, aiming at the suppression of E. amylovora on floral parts by antibiotics, chemical compounds, natural substances or biological control agents, are also discussed.     

Stomatal closure in response to xanthoxin and abscisic acid

Summary The stomata of detached leaves of Commelina communis L., Hordeum vulgare L., Zea mays L., Vicia faba L., Phaseolus vulgaris L. and Xanthium strumarium L. closed when xanthoxin (XAN) was added to the transpiration stream. XAN was approximately half as active as (+)-abscisic acid (ABA) at an equivalent concentration. XAN, like ABA, sensitized stomata of Xanthium strumarium to CO₂. In contrast to ABA, XAN was ineffective in closing stomata of isolated epidermal strips of C. communis or V. faba. This may be because XAN added to the transpiration stream is converted to ABA during passage from the xylem to the epidermis.Abbreviations ABA Abscisic acid - XAN xanthoxin     

短果大蒜芥花蜜腺的发育解剖学研究

短果大蒜芥（Sisymbrium loeselii L.var.brevicarpum Z.X.An)花蜜腺位于雄蕊基部花托上,属十字花科环状花蜜腺类型中的侧棱环四圆环亚型。蜜腺由分泌表皮,产蜜组织和维管束组成。分泌表皮上有变态气孔器,蜜腺中部的气孔器呈舟状分布。产蜜组织中的维管束来自于花托中的维管束分支,属较进化的十字花科花蜜腺的亚型类型。蜜腺原基是在花的各部分原基分化后,由雄蕊基部花托表面区域的2－3层细胞,经反分化形成,环状蜜腺发生发育同步,在蜜腺的发育过程中,蜜腺组织中的液泡和淀粉粒都发生了有规律的变化,其原蜜汁由维管束提供,运转至产蜜组织,最后由变态气孔泌出。     

Occurrence,structure, ontogeny and biology of nectaries inKigelia pinnata DC

The occurrence, morphology, ontogeny, structure and preliminary nectar analysis of floral and extrafloral nectaries are studied inKigelia pinnata of the Bignoniaceae. The extrafloral nectaries occur on foliage leaves, sepals and outer wall of the ovary, while the floral nectary is situated around the ovary base as an annular, massive, yellowish ring on the torus. The extrafloral nectaries originate from a single nectary initial. The floral nectary develops from a group of parenchymatous cells on the torus. The extrafloral nectaries are differentiated into multicellular foot, stalk and cupular or patelliform head. The floral nectary consists of parenchymatous tissue. The floral nectaries are supplied with phloem tissue. The secretion is copious in floral nectary. Function of the nectary, preliminary nectar analysis, and symbiotic relation between nectaries and animal visitors are discussed.     

Comparative anatomy and morphology of nectar-producing Melastomataceae

Background and Aims

Most neotropical Melastomataceae have bee-pollinated flowers with poricidal anthers. However, nectar rewards are known to be produced in about 80 species in eight genera from four different tribes. These nectar-producing species are pollinated by both vertebrates and invertebrates.

Methods

The floral morphology and anatomy of 14 species was studied in six genera of nectar-producing Melastomataceae (Blakea, Brachyotum, Charianthus, Huilaea, Meriania and Miconia). Anatomical methods included scanning electron microscopy, and serial sections of paraffin-embedded flowers.

Key Results

All vertebrate-pollinated melastome flowers have petals that do not open completely at anthesis, thus forming a pseudo-tubular corolla, while closely related species that are bee pollinated have rotate or reflexed corollas. In most species, nectar secretion is related to stomatal or epidermal nectaries and not filament slits as previously reported. Moreover, the nectar is probably supplied by large vascular bundles near the release area. Blakea and Huilaea have nectary stomata located upon the dorsal anther connective appendages. Brachyotum also has nectary stomata on the anther connectives, but these are distributed lengthwise along most of the connective. Meriania may release nectar through the anther connective, but has additional nectary stomata on the inner walls of the hypanthium. Miconia has nectary stomata on the ovary apex. Charianthus nectaries were not found, but there is circumstantial evidence that nectar release occurs through the epidermis at the apex of the ovary and the lower portions of the inner wall of the hypanthium.

Conclusions

Nectar release in Melastomataceae is apparently related to nectary stomata and not filament slits. The presence of nectary stomata on stamens and on ovary apices in different lineages suggests that the acquisition of nectaries is a derived condition. Nectary location also supports a derived condition, because location is strongly consistent within each genus, but differs between genera.Key words: Blakea, Brachyotum, Charianthus, Huilaea, Meriania, Melastomataceae, Miconia, nectaries, nectary stomata, pollination