Identification of phlebotomine sandfly bloodmeals from Baringo district, Kenya, by direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

Direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to identify the sources of bloodmeals in phlebotomine sandflies from Baringo District, Rift Valley Province, Kenya. Some bloodmeals had been stored for over 4 years before being analysed. Among 356 sandflies identified, 62.9% were Phlebotomus martini, 14.8% Sergentomyia antennatus, 10% S.schwetzi, 6% S.clydei, 1.9% S.adleri, 1.6% P.duboscqi, 1.4% S.africanus and 0.8% S.bedfordi. Out of 224 P.martini bloodmeals, host source was identified for 69. The order of host preference for P.martini was: goat 28.5%, rabbit 22.7%, human 8.9% and others 8.9%. Evidence of mixed feeding was shown by four species comprising sixteen specimens, twelve of which were P.martini. The most effective methods for trapping bloodfed P. martini were sticky paper traps in termite hills, followed by light-traps. Of the 224 P.martini trapped, 58.9% were collected with traps in termite hills, and 22.7% with light traps. Roles of the three most popular hosts for P.martini should be investigated to ascertain whether they act as reservoirs in the transmission of Leishmania donovani causing visceral leishmaniasis in Kenya.     

Comparative studies on the gastric glycopeptide in eleven animal species.

1. Glycopeptides in the stomachs of eleven mammalian species, including human, rabbit, horse, cow, pig, goat, sheep, dog, cat, guinea pig and rat were assayed by determining the carbohydrate content of materials which remained after proteolysis. 2. The glycopeptide content was higher in the mucosa than in the muscular layer including serosa, especially in the porcine stomach and the fourth stomachs of the ruminants than in the stomachs of any other animals. 3. The glycopeptide, which was stained with both alcian blue and PAS, was absent or sparingly present in the mucosae of the human, rabbit, horse stomachs and in the mucosae of the first to third stomachs of the cow, goat and sheep, whereas in the mucosae of the pig, dog, cat, guinea pig and rat stomachs and in the mucosae of the fourth stomachs of the cow, goat and sheep, it was found in noticeable extents.     

Preliminary study on feeding preference of Nyssomyia neivai (Pinto) and Nyssomyia whitmani (Antunes & Coutinho) (Diptera: Psychodidae) in a rural area of the State of Paraná, South Brazil

Due to the importance of sandflies in the American cutaneous leishmaniasis epidemiology, we investigated the feeding preference of sandflies related to domestic animals common in domiciliary environments in endemic rural areas, where this disease occurs. The sandflies were collected with Falc?o light traps, installed in cages, each one containing one domestic animal kind (pig, dog, rabbit or chicken), in Recanto Marista, in Doutor Camargo municipality. Forty five collections were made, totaling 135h of collections per trap. A total of 2,854 sandflies of the following species were collected: Brumptomyia brumpti (Larousse), Evandromyia correalimai (Martins, Coutinho & Luz), Evandromyia cortelezzii (Brèthes), Expapillata firmatoi (Barreto, Martins & Pellegrino), Micropygomyia ferreirana (Barreto, Martins & Pellegrino), Migonemyia migonei (Fran?a), Nyssomyia neivai (Pinto), Nyssomyia whitmani (Antunes & Coutinho), Pintomyia fischeri (Pinto), Pintomyia monticola (Costa Lima), Pintomyia pessoai (Coutinho & Barreto), Psathyromyia lanei (Barreto & Coutinho) and Psathyromyia shannoni (Dyar). The dominant species was N. neivai. N. neivai and N. whitmani did not show any feeding preference towards the animals used as bait. It was concluded that N. neivai and N. whitmani are opportunist and, probably, the females adjust their feeding habits to the availability of hosts, suggesting their feeding eclecticism in the anthropic environments.     

Why clone flies? Using Cloned Drosophila to Monitor Epigenetic Defects

The birth of Dolly the sheep in 1996 transformed nuclear transplantation from an arcane technique to a technology at the core of medical biotechnology. Transplantation of nuclei allows the generation of new individuals and is being exploited to create genetically tailored stem cells for replacement tissues and organs. The list of cloned animals reared to adulthood currently includes the frog, sheep, mouse, cow, goat, pig, rabbit, cat, zebrafish, mule, horse, rat and dog. The addition of Drosophila to this elite bestiary of cloned animals has prompted the question – why clone flies? Organisms generated by nuclear transplantation suffer from a high rate of associated defects. This review summarizes recent literature that demonstrates that the majority of these defects, in both mammals and flies, arise from mis-regulation of imprinted genes. The regulation of imprinted genes relies on a suite of highly conserved chromatin-modifying genes, first identified in Drosophila. Thus, Drosophila can be used to rapidly assess epigenetic dysfunction in cloned animals and could be used to screen for genes that allow the production of healthy clones.     

榆林火石梁遗址动物遗存研究

本文对榆林新机场火石梁遗址出土的动物骨骼进行了系统的分类和研究。动物骨骼属哺乳动物18种,鸟类1种;其中以羊骨数量最多,约占总数的60%,不同于任何一个关中新石器遗址。根据对出土的动物骨骼和文化层堆积分析结果表明:遗址周围的自然景观以草原为主,草原上有各种羊、牛、马、兔等食草动物,不远处有一定面积的森林、疏林、灌丛及沙漠,其间有虎、猫等食肉动物和各种鹿类动物及羚羊的出没。动物中虎、梅花鹿、马鹿、狍、羚羊、岩羊现已在此绝迹,其余为现仍生活在该地区的种类。     

Comparative fecundity and survival rates of Phlebotomus papatasi sandflies membrane fed on blood from eight mammal species

Female sandflies, Phlebotomus papatasi (Scopoli) (Diptera: Psychodidae), were fed via chicken membrane on heparinized blood from eight species of mammal (human, horse, cow, pig, dog, rabbit, guinea-pig, hamster) and their reproductive success rates were compared. No appreciable differences between those fed on human and animal blood were detected with respect to the proportion of flies that fed successfully, mortality-rate within 24h, number of eggs laid per blood-fed female or egg viability. When mass-rearing sandflies for research purposes, membrane-feeding avoids practical difficulties encountered if sandflies are allowed to feed on live hosts (i.e. anaesthesia, distress from handling and postfeeding inflammation) and reduction of sandfly fecundity due to host antibody interference. Use of animal blood also eliminates risks of accidental transmission of human blood-borne pathogens, e.g. hepatitis B and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and is less expensive than maintenance of animals and their preparation for sandfly feeding.     

Host preferences of Palaearctic Culicoides biting midges: implications for transmission of orbiviruses

Feeding success depends on host availability, host defensive reactions and host preferences. Host choice is a critical determinant of the intensity at which pathogens are transmitted. The aim of the current study was to describe host preferences of Palaearctic Culicoides species (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) Latreille using traps baited with the five different host species of poultry, horse, cattle, sheep and goat. Collections were carried out nightly in July and August 2009 in western France with three replicates of a 5 × 5 randomized Latin square (five sites, five hosts). Moreover, an ultraviolet (UV) light/suction trap was operated during host‐baited collections to correlate Culicoides biting rates and UV light/suction trap catches. A total of 660 Culicoides belonging to 12 species, but comprised mainly of Culicoides scoticus Downes and Kettle, Culicoides dewulfi Goetghebuer and Culicoides obsoletus Meigen, were collected on animal baits. Abundance was highest for the horse, which accounted for 95% of all Culicoides caught, representing 10 species. The horse, the largest bait, was the most attractive host, even when abundance data were corrected by weight, body surface or Kleiber's scaling factor. Culicoides obsoletus was the only dominant species attracted by birds. Both C. scoticus and C. dewulfi were collected mainly from the upper body of the horse. Finally, the quantification of host preferences allows for discussion of implications for the transmission of Culicoides‐borne pathogens such as bluetongue virus.     

A comparative study of Echinococcus granulosus from human and animal hosts in Kenya using isoelectric focusing and isoenzyme analysis

Macpherson C. N. L. and Mcmanus D. P. 1982). A comparative study of Echinococcus granulosus from human and animal hosts in Kenya using isoelectric focusing and isoenzyme analysis. International Journal for Parasitology12: 515–521. The soluble enzyme extracts from protoscoleces obtained from hydatid cysts of human, camel, cattle, sheep and goat origin were compared on the basis of their isoenzyme patterns for GPI and PGM using isoelectric focusing. Consistent GPI and PGM isoenzyme patterns were obtained for larvae of human, camel and sheep material. Cattle material varied occasionally in having an additional cathodic band in some of the GPI patterns. Two distinct isoenzyme patterns were evident in the goat material for both enzymes. The more common goat patterns were similar to those of human, cattle and sheep (Kenya, U.K. and Argentina) material, which were similar to each other. The rare goat patterns were similar to those obtained for camel material. Cyst location in the various intermediate hosts had no effect on the zymograms obtained. Additionally, no alteration in the major banding patterns was observed between the larvae and homologous adults produced by experimental infections. Of 26 naturally infected dogs, 19 produced adult GPI zymograms resembling human/ sheep/goat (common form) experimental infection patterns, three were similar to experimental cattle infections and four had camel/goat (rare form) patterns.     

Fine structure of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)-granules in the atrial cardiocytes in the hamster, guinea pig, rabbit, cat and dog.

In the hamster, guinea pig, rabbit, dog and cat, the right and left atria and ventricles were examined by immunohistochemistry, and the right auricular cardiocytes were studied by transmission electron microscopy. Moreover, ANP-granules in the cardiocytes were analyzed by ultrastructural morphometry. Immunohistochemically, the most intensely ANP-reactive cardiocytes were localized in the right auricle, particularly more prominent in the hamster and guinea pig than in the rabbit, dog and cat. The immunoreaction in the dog and cat was weaker than that in the rabbit. ANP-immunoreactivity was not detected in the ventricular myocardium of any of all species examined, but was occasionally observed in the subendocardium of the ventricular septum. Ultrastructurally, ANP-granules were localized principally in the perinuclear region associated with the Golgi apparatus and scattered throughout the sarcoplasmic layers. The Golgi apparatus of the cardiocytes was better developed in the hamster and guinea pig than in the rabbit, dog and cat. It was poorly-developed in the dog and cat. By ultrastructural morphometry, the number of granules was greatest in the hamster followed by the guinea pig, rabbit and dog or cat, in this order. On the other hand, the diameter of granules was largest in the guinea pig and reduced via the hamster to the rabbit. The diameter was significantly smaller in the dog than in the rabbit. The diameter of granules of the cat was lay between the rabbit and dog.     

Studies on the behaviour and control of phlebotomine sandflies using experimental houses

Programmes for the control of phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae), the vectors of leishmaniases, mainly target adults because larval breeding sites are generally unknown or inaccessible. To determine how blood‐questing sandfly females enter homes and to develop means for their control, an experimental house (EH) was constructed in a village endemic for cutaneous leishmaniasis. Initially, carbon dioxide (CO₂)‐baited suction traps were installed inside the EH to attract and capture sandflies. For other experiments, the windows of the EH were fitted with CO₂‐baited window entrance traps (WETs) that allow each window to be considered as a separate unit. The majority of captures inside the EH and in WETs consisted of Phlebotomus sergenti, a species that enters inhabited houses relatively infrequently. Analyses of collections in WETs and in sticky traps on external walls showed that sandflies entered windows having landed previously on the wall below or either side of the window. Shelves constructed below windows significantly reduced the numbers of sandflies that entered both the EH and inhabited houses. The lining of internal walls with insecticide‐impregnated fabric significantly increased mortality rates of sandflies captured inside the EH. To reduce the biting burden imposed by phlebotomine sandflies, several control measures must be integrated and sustained.     

Comparative histochemical distribution of “leucine amino-peptidase” in the placenta and foetal membranes

Summary The distribution of an enzyme, or enzymes hydrolysing l-leucyl--naphthylamide is studied in the placentae, foetal membranes, and uterine structures of the horse, sheep, cat, dog, ferret, rat, rabbit, guinea-pig, and human. Activity is seen mainly in the trophoblast (except that of the cat, dog, and guinea-pig), in the rodent yolk-sac endoderm (except that of the rat), or in the uterine epithelium — surface (sheep and guinea-pig) or glandular (dog). The presence of the enzyme or enzymes is correlated with possible functions in absorption and transport of materials, or in elaboration and release of complex molecules.     

Isolation of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma species from raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides viverrinus)

Mycoplasma spp. were isolated from five wild raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides viverrinus). On the basis of biochemical properties and serological tests, nine isolates were identified as Mycoplasma edwardii and four were similar to a possibly new Mycoplasma sp. represented by strain LM2 which is negative for both glucose fermentation and arginine hydrolysis. In addition, ureaplasmas were detected from these animals. Ureaplasmas were compared serologically with ureaplasma strains isolated from human, monkey, cattle, goat, sheep, cat, chicken and dog and cross-reacted with one of four serological groups of canine ureaplasmas.     

Reservoirs of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brucella</Emphasis> infection in nature

Brucellosis is a zoonosis caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella, which includes nine species: B. melitensis (goats and sheep as the main reservoir hosts), B. abortus (cattle), B. suis (pigs), B. neotomae (desert woodrats), B. ovis (sheep), B. canis (dogs), B. ceti (whales), B. pinnipedialis (pinnipeds), and B. microti (Microtus voles). The epidemic and epizootic situation with brucellosis is accounted for by farm animals, which are the carriers of three main pathogens (B. melitensis, B. abortus, and B. suis). Their ubiquitous distribution is the factor determining global prevalence of the above Brucella species on all continents and in the overwhelming majority of countries. Consistent with the expansion of the pathogen ecological range are the 1990s findings of new Brucella species in marine mammals (whales and pinnipeds) and in some rodents. These bacteria proved to be also pathogenic for terrestrial mammals and humans. All Brucella-infected animals considered in the paper are tentatively divided into two groups. The first includes most of the wild and domestic animal species, birds, and ticks that acquire the infection farm animals, the main hosts of Brucella. The second group includes animals (wild reindeer, hares, bison, and probably saiga antelopes, dogs, and marine mammals) which may carry Brucella regardless of infection prevalence in the main hosts.     

The Origin and Genetic Status of Insular Caprines in the Eastern Mediterranean: A Case Study of Free-Ranging Goats (Capra aegagrus cretica) on Crete

The history and species status of free-ranging goats inhabiting the Eastern Mediterranean islands is discussed with reference to morphometric, archaeological and genetic findings. A case study on the free-ranging goats on Crete (Capra aegagrus cretica) is presented. The phenotype of the Cretan goat resembles that of the wild bezoar goat (C. aegagrus). However, the mitochondrial DNA of cytochrome b and d-loop sequences shows affinity with domestic goats. It has been suggested that the Cretan goat represents a feral animal that was introduced onto the island during the 6th millennium b.c. as a primitive domestic, and has retained the wild morphotype but has undergone significant genetic change. An alternative explanation, and the one that is proposed here, is that the goat was introduced onto the island in wild form and released as a food source. Subsequent introgressions with domestic animals, especially ewes, have influenced its genotype. These conclusions are applicable to other free-living goats and sheep which inhabit islands in the Eastern Mediterranean.     

Speciesabhängigkeit der Monoaminoxydase-Aktivität in verschiedenem Lebensalter

Summary The monoamine oxidase activity in ten species (man, dog, cat, rabbit, guinea pig, rat, hamster, mouse, chicken, goose) was histochemically studied in the myocardium, liver, kidney and psoas muscle in newborn and older individuals.An age-dependent increase of monoamine oxidase activity is established in the liver and kidney of man, dog, cat, guinea pig and hamster. In the psoas muscle of the rat the monoamine oxidase activity is consistently weak. In the myocardium only the rat shows an increase with age.     

Why clone flies? Using cloned Drosophila to monitor epigenetic defects

Since the birth of the first cloned sheep in 1996, advances in nuclear transplantation have led to both the creation of genetically tailored stem cells and the generation of a number of cloned organisms. The list of cloned animals reared to adulthood currently includes the frog, sheep, mouse, cow, goat, pig, rabbit, cat, zebrafish, mule, horse, rat and dog. The addition of Drosophila to this elite bestiary of cloned animals has prompted the question - why clone flies? Organisms generated by nuclear transplantation suffer from a high rate of associated defects, and many of these defects appear to be related to aberrant genomic imprinting. Imprinted gene expression also appears to be compromised in Drosophila clones. Proper imprinted gene regulation relies on a suite of highly conserved chromatin-modifying genes first identified in Drosophila. Thus, Drosophila can potentially be used to study epigenetic dysfunction in cloned animals and to screen for genetic and epigenetic conditions that promote the production of healthy clones.     

Haemolysis of various mammalian erythrocytes in sodium chloride, glucose and phosphate-buffer solutions.

Mouse, rat, rabbit, hamster, cow, pig, sheep, guinea-pig, dog and human erythrocytes were studied. A 0.9% or stronger solution of sodium chloride completely prevented haemolysis; sheep and pig erythrocytes appeared the more fragile, while human and dog erythrocytes were not haemolized in concentrations of 0.4% or more. Haemolysis of human, rabbit, cow, hamster, guineapig, pig and sheep erythrocytes was not observed in solutions of 0.4% or more of glucose. Except for sheep, human and dog erythrocytes, haemolysis was depressed in rate but not completely prevented by phosphate-buffer solution of pH 7.0.     

Comparative efficacy of existing surveillance tools for Aedes aegypti in Western Kenya

All traditional surveillance techniques for Aedes aegypti have been developed for the cosmopolitan domestic subspecies Ae. aegypti aegypti, and not the sylvatic subspecies, Ae. aegypti formosus. The predominant form in Western Kenya is Ae. aegypti formosus that is rarely associated with human habitations but is linked to transmission of sylvatic dengue virus strains. We compared five surveillance methods for their effectiveness in sampling Ae. aegypti formosus with the goal of determining a sustainable surveillance strategy in Kenya. The methods included larval and pupal surveys, oviposition trapping, BG‐Sentinel trapping, resting boxes, and backpack aspirations. Larval and pupal surveys collected the highest number of Ae. aegypti formosus (51.3%), followed by oviposition traps (45.7%), BG‐Sentinel traps (3.0%), and zero collected with either backpack aspiration or resting box collections. No Ae. aegypti formosus larvae or pupae were found indoors. The results indicate that oviposition traps and outdoor larval and pupal surveys were better surveillance methods for Ae. aegypti formosus in Western Kenya.     

Study of mast cell and histamine contents of the pineal body

Summary The number and distribution of mast cells were studied in pineal bodies of 16 mammalian species. In cattle, goat, monkey and guinea-pig the cells occurred in large numbers; in man, sheep, marmoset and mouse there was a moderate amount, and they were almost absent in pineal bodies of horse, rat, pig, dog, hamster, fox, cat and rabbit.In 17 human pineal bodies, 11 of which were obtained from normal individuals, the mast cell population was 3 ± 0.5 mast cells per microscopical field (0.32 mm in diameter).The histamine content in pineal bodies of several mammals was also determined. The substance occurred in high amount in the pineal body of cattle, in moderate amount in that of goat, man and sheep, and could not be detected in horse, pig, rabbit and rat.In human and cattle pineal bodies the histamine content could be correlated to the mast cell population; in other species the same correlation was only suggested.In in vitro experiments octylamine released histamine from the pineal body of cattle, while compound 48/80 was ineffective.It is suggested that the hypotensive action of pineal extract reported by several authors might be due to the histamine content of this gland.This work was supported in part by funds received from the Conselho Nacional de Pesquisas of Brazil and The Rockefeller Foundation (Grant 61119). — Acknowledgement. For encouragement and criticism the authors wish to express their gratitude to Prof. Dr. W. T. Beraldo (Department of Physiology) and Prof. Dr. L. J. A. Di Dio (Department of Anatomy).Fellow of the Conselho Nacional de Pesquisas of Brazil.