A PCR-RFLP-based method to distinguish sable (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Martes zibellina</Emphasis>) and pine marten (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Martes martes</Emphasis>)

Species identification is an important issue in conservation and a particular focus for wildlife forensics. Molecular biological methods retain a unique power to differentiate between difficult samples that lack other identifiable characteristics. The pine marten (Martes martes) and sable (Martes zibellina) are closely related species with very similar pelage characteristics and are often difficult to distinguish from each other. The sable, however, in contrast to the pine marten, remains an endangered and protected animal in China with both hunting and fur trade strictly prohibited for this species. Here, we present a polymerase chain reaction-based restriction fragment length polymorphism method for distinguishing the two species. We sequenced a 638-bp fragment of cytochrome b gene in 39 sables, 68 pine martens, and 10 stone martens and identified all variable nucleotides. A new primer pair was subsequently designed to amplify a 316-bp fragment containing restriction sites of enzyme BseG I and BamH I that are different among martens. When the fragment was cut using BseG I, the resulting restriction pattern was identical in the sable and pine marten, but differed from all other martens. When cut using BamH I, the fragment generated two diagnostic fragments in the sable which could distinguish them from pine martens. This method was valid for all haplotypes of sable and pine marten thus far identified and has high potentially applicability for the identification of the two species.     

Does human infrastructure shape scent marking in a solitary felid?

Human development, such as construction of roads and trails, can affect several animal behaviour traits and is increasing worldwide. Despite the importance of scent marking for communication and social organization in many mammals, it is not clearly understood how scent marking is affected by human habitat modification. We used snow tracking data collected across six winters to study the effects of road infrastructure on the marking behaviour of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in a human-dominated landscape. We found that lynx marked at higher rates (11.2 urine sprays/km) on human routes (forest roads and logging trails) than when walking in natural habitat (5.8 sprays/km). This pattern was noted in both sexes, although males walked on human routes more frequently and scent marked more often than females. Compared to previous studies the mean marking rates we observed were the highest documented so far for wild felids. This may mainly be due to regular use of human routes (42% of all lynx movement) and the high scent marking rates found thereon. Human routes channelize lynx movement, and scent marking on these routes likely increases the probability of the chemical message being received by a conspecific; therefore human routes might enable more effective communication in territorial felids. Since most of the landscapes worldwide are covered by road networks and various human objects, the marking behaviour of wild mammals may be profoundly changed due to human-caused habitat modifications.     

Effects of prepubertal ovariectomy on the development of scent glands, scent marking, and aggressive behaviors of female tamarin monkeys (Saguinus fuscicollis)

The effects of prepubertal ovariectomy on scent gland development, scent marking behavior, and on social interactions with strange adult conspecifics were studied in adult females cohabiting with intact males. Eight females were ovariectomized and eight underwent control surgery at 6 months of age. All were returned to their families after surgery and allowed to reach sexual maturity. At 18 months of age, each female was permanently paired with an adult, intact male. When the subjects were 21 months old, the social interactions of all pairs with strange adults were tested in a situation analogous to a territorial encounter. The scent marking activities of the subjects and their mates were studied during “territorial encounters,” in trial-free control situations, and in the presence of novel objects. Ovariectomy prior to puberty retarded the development of the scent gland but did not inhibit it completely. Social interactions with strange conspecifics were also affected. Ovariectomized females showed fewer threat displays than did control females, but there was no significant difference in the amount of injurious aggression both female groups directed at the strangers. Under all testing conditions, ovariectomized females tended to scent mark less frequently with the circumgenital-suprapubic gland than did controls. This difference was statistically significant only under some of the testing conditions. Intact females scent marked more frequently than their males but ovariectomized females did so only under trial-free testing conditions. The sternal scent gland was used very infrequently by all subjects and there was no difference in marking activity between males and females or between ovariectomized and control females.     

Scent marking in two western Amazonian populations of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha)

We describe patterns of scent marking observed in two wild populations of lowland woolly monkeys that were the subjects of long-term studies in the westernmost portion of the Amazon basin. The woolly monkeys engaged primarily in two types of scent marking: chest rubbing and anogenital rubbing. In both study populations, males and females performed both types of scent marking, but males chest-rubbed more commonly than females, while females engaged in more anogenital rubbing. We evaluated two nonexclusive hypotheses for the function of scent marking by woolly monkeys: 1) that scent marking is used in sociosexual contexts, and 2) that scent marking is used to convey information about occupancy of or willingness to defend an area from conspecifics in other social groups. We found no association between the occurrence of scent-marking behavior and location within the home range, but did find that scent marking occurred more commonly than expected on days when copulations, mating solicitations, and intergroup encounters were observed. Additionally, mating activity and chest rubbing were highly correlated across the yearly cycle, even when the potentially confounding variable of ripe fruit availability was controlled for. In woolly monkeys, overt male-male competition is rare and female choice is an important part of the mating system. Our results are most consistent with the idea that scent marking plays a role in advertising male quality or competitive ability, and perhaps in coordinating mating activity.     

The role of scent marking in the social communication of wild golden lion tamarins, Leontopithecus rosalia

The role of scent marking in the social communication of mammals is widely variable. One reason for this variation is that the function of scent marking may vary with different ecological and social conditions. The purpose of this study was to test four nonexclusive hypotheses explaining the role of scent-marking frequency in different ecological and social contexts for wild golden lion tamarins. Relative to ecological contexts, we compared scent-marking frequency during seasons of abundant and scarce food resources. Relative to social contexts, we compared scent-marking frequency when groups were isolated and when groups were in the presence of neighbouring groups. We found that the tamarins used scent marking to mark the location of food resources. Additionally, males used scent marking to communicate intrasexual dominance within their groups, while females did not. Our results also indicate that alpha females increased their scent-marking frequency to communicate to members of other groups, while the presence of members of other groups did not elicit a similar response by alpha males. We did not find evidence for a territorial function of scent marking in golden lion tamarins. Copyright 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour      

Lack of effects of castration on scent marking, displays, and aggression in a South American primate (Saguinus fuscicollis).

The social interactions of 12 adult, permanently cohabiting male-female pairs with strange conspecifics were studied before and after the male of each pair was either castrated or underwent control surgery. Prior to surgery, the pairs directed a relatively high amount of injurious aggression and displays toward the stranger. Aggression, display behavior, and scent marking tended to be more frequent in females. Moreover, female strangers received more aggression than male strangers, particularly by female subjects. Castration of the males did not result in a decrease in aggression, display behavior, and scent marking. On the contrary, the agression scores of all subjects tended to be higher after surgery, an increase which was probably caused by extraexperimental variables.     

Histological examinations of facial glands in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccopteryx</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">bilineata</Emphasis> (Chiroptera,Emballonuridae), and their potential use in territorial marking

Scent marking is widespread among individuals of Mammalia species, especially in resource defence social systems. Apart from urine and faeces that are used for claiming resource ownership, specialised scent glands are the main source of secretions in scent marking individuals. Most previous studies have described secretory epithelia macroscopically, since many glands are conspicuous. But macroscopically inconspicuous scent glands or morphological structures might then be overlooked. In Saccopteryx bilineata (greater sac-winged bat), behavioural observations suggest that both sexes have, apart from the conspicuous gular glands of males, specialised facial glands to display territorial marking. We investigated the facial glands of two males and one female S. bilineata histologically and found, first, that both sexes possess a bilateral symmetrically intermandibular gland, which is composed of a bed of modified apocrine sudoriferous cells. Second, we found lip glands consisting of modified apocrine sudoriferous cell units with pigmented ducts around the upper and the lower lip. Both gland types are probably involved during territorial marking.     

Behavioural responses of desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae after removal of scent marking gland

The desert gerbil, M. hurrianae scent marks the general substratum in its territory with the sebum exudation of mid abdominal gland and urine. Having assessed number of functions, which scent marking plays in the social life of these rodents, the scent marking behaviour was studied in animals, in which the gland was surgically removed and was compared with that of intact rodents. After recovery from the operation, the scent marking frequency of both male and female M. hurrianae declined significantly and was maintained at a low level. Surprisingly, scent marking with urine also declined considerable with time. After 5 months of the operation, desert gerbils were given a choice to respond to male and female sebum odours. The frequency of their scent marking with either sebum or urine did not show any significant enhancement as compared to their initial marking rate. However, the duration of their stay and scent marking frequency near the source of the sebum odour was more that in the clean side of the cage. The role of such altering behaviors of M. hurrianae and their impact on social organization are discussed.     

Sociosexual development,pair bond formation,and mechanisms of fertility suppression in female cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus)

The effect of various social environments on sociosexual behavior was examined in six young female cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus) and in three established breeding females. Behavioral observations and hormonal samples were collected on young females while they were living with their families, when they were isolated from conspecifics, and after they were paired with an unrelated male. While living with the family, all females showed a suppression of fertility and low frequencies of sociosexual behavior. Following removal from the family, isolated females displayed an increase in rate of scent marking and an increase in hormonal levels. When young females were paired with males, they were exposed to scent secretions from their natal families, from an unfamilar family, and from a control for a total of 24 weeks. After pairing, hormonal levels increased dramatically, and ovarian cyclicity began. An increase in sociosexual behavior and elevated levels of scent marking accompanied this physiological change. Newly paired females had higher rates of affiliative behavior and scent marking than did established breeding females. However, both newly paired and established breeding males were more likely to initiate contact, grooming bouts, and social sniffing than were females. Time to first ovulation was later in females who were exposed to scent secretions from their natal families than it was in those females given a control for the first 8 weeks following pairing. No female conceived during exposure to scent secretions. However, once normal ovarian cycling had begun or a pregnancy was established, exposure to scent secretions had no effect. Thus, the social environment influences the fertility, sociosexual behavior, and pair bond formation of cotton-top tamarins. In addition, chemical stimuli found in the scent secretions produced by the natal family are most likely involved in reproductive suppression.     

The predation risks of interspecific eavesdropping: weasel–vole interactions

Competing species benefit from eavesdropping on each other's signals by learning about shared resources or predators. But conspicuous signals are also open to exploitation by eavesdropping predators and should also pose a threat to other sympatric prey species. In western Finland, sibling voles Microtus rossiameridionalis and field voles M. agrestis compete for food and space, and both species rely upon scent marks for intraspecific communication. Both vole species are prey to a range of terrestrial scent hunting predators such as least weasels, however, the competitively superior sibling voles are taken preferentially. We tested in large out‐door enclosures whether field voles eavesdrop on the signals of its competitor, and whether they behave as though this eavesdropping carries a risk of predation. We presented field voles with scent marks from unknown conspecifics and sibling voles and measured their visitation, activity and scent marking behaviours at these scents under high (weasel present) and low (weasel absent) predation risk. Field voles readily visited both field and sibling vole scents under both high and low predation risk; however their activity at sibling vole scent marks declined significantly under increased predation risk. In contrast, predation risk did not affect field voles’ activity at conspecific scents. Thus, field voles were compelled to maintain eavesdropping on heterospecific scents under an increased risk of predation, however they compensated for this additional risk by reducing their activity at these risky scents. Scent marking rates declined significantly under high predation risk. Our results therefore reveal a hidden complexity in the use of social signals within multi‐species assemblages that is clearly sensitive to the potential for increased predation risk. The predation risks of interspecific eavesdropping demonstrated here represents a significant generalisation of the concept of associational susceptibility.     

Genetic structure of European pine martens (Martes martes), and evidence for introgression with M. americana in England

European pine martens (Martes martes)were once distributed across much ofwestern Europe. A combination of factors, suchas persecution, trapping, and habitat loss haveled to sharp declines in the species' numbersand range and, as such, local populations havebecome more vulnerable to extinction. Toevaluate the influence of these factors on boththe level of genetic variation and populationstructure, we genotyped pine martens fromacross much of their current distribution. Continental M. martes populations werefound to have a higher level of geneticstructure and lower genetic variation thantheir North American sibling species, M.americana, sampled throughout Canada. Thedifferences among mainland populations of thesespecies may lie in greater levels of habitatfragmentation and persecution experienced byEuropean martens, though it is difficult toexclude more ancient processes such as theinfluence of glaciations. Among islandpopulations of the two species, the Scottishpopulation revealed a similar level ofstructure and variation to the M. a.atrata population of Newfoundland, howeverIreland was more differentiated with lessgenetic variation. Our work usingmicrosatellites also extends previous mtDNAevidence for the presence of M. americanahaplotypes in England, raising the possibilityof hybridization with M. martes. Thesefindings may influence current discussions onthe status of English martens and theappropriateness of proposed re-introductions byrevealing that some indigenous martens persistin England, despite the presence of somepotential hybrids in the region.     

Fertility status,dominance, and scent marking behavior of family-housed female cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) in absence of their mothers

The effect of the mother's absence on the fertility status and expression of scent marking behavior was examined in 12 sexually mature female cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) living in four motherless families. Behavioral data and urine samples were collected on an average of five times per week and levels of estrone-glucuronide (E1G) were quantified directly by radioimmunoassay to establish whether the females showed ovarian cyclicity. Of the 12 females investigated only the dominant female in each motherless group exhibited regular E1G cycles. By contrast, low and acyclic hormonal profiles were found for subordinate sisters. In addition to differences in the patterns and levels of E1G, scent gland morphology and rates of scent marking differed between females: dominant, cycling females had elaborate glands and significantly higher rates of scent marking than subordinates. These results indicate that the presence of the mother (breeding female) is one important factor regulating ovarian function in cotton-top tamarin daughters. The findings also show that dominance status is a vital determinant of each female's subsequent physiological reproductive competence, with only the dominant female obtaining complete fertility and probably inhibiting ovulatory activity in her subordinate sisters. Scent marking behavior seems to be involved in the regulation of this phenomenon of intrasexual reproductive competition.     

Scent marking by common volesMicrotus arvalis in the presence of a same-sex neighbour

Several vole species use scent marked runways radiating from their burrows for foraging and dispersion. These marks are probably used for social communication. This 4-day laboratory study investigated the environmental and social causations of marking inside pre-existing corridors in male and female common volesMicrotus arvalis (Pallas, 1778). Firstly I tested the novelty and the reinforcement hypotheses in isolated voles, predicting respectively a habituation or a continuous increase in mark deposition. I then confronted with each other two same-sex voles for two days to investigate the differences between males and females in the pattern of marks inside three corridors, one of which runs along the common partition with the neighbour. I tested the self-advertisement and territorial-defence hypotheses, respectively predicting in the presence of a neighbour either a similar marking between the three corridors or a greater marking in the corridor close to the neighbour than in the two other corridors. The results showed no habituation in marking, even in a familiar environment, confirming the reinforcement hypothesis. After the addition of a neighbour, only the females left more marks in the corridor that ran alongside the common border than in the two other corridors. The territorial-defence hypothesis was thus confirmed in (territorial) females while the self-advertisement was supported in (non-territorial) males. Finally, I tested the competitive-ability hypothesis in females, stating that the abundance of scent marks of an individual before a social interaction can predict its degree of intolerance in a future social interaction. The results from female pairs physically interacting for four days support the hypothesis.     

Behavioral and hormonal response of common marmosets, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Callithrix jacchus</Emphasis>, to two environmental conditions

Captive animals of several species change their behavioral pattern and hormonal profile in response to physical (for example, cage size and temperature) and social (for example, group size and social isolation) modification of their environment. To evaluate the effect of environmental change in captivity, the affiliative (contact/proximity and allogrooming) and individual (approach, leaving, scent mark, locomotion, and autogrooming) behavior of five family groups of common marmosets, Callithrix jacchus, were recorded on weekdays (non-quiet) and at the weekend (quiet) for two months. In addition, fecal samples were collected for four of these groups to measure their cortisol levels under both conditions. The behavioral pattern and hormonal profile of breeding pairs and their offspring were modified by different management routines used in the experimental conditions. We found that the animals spent more time in affiliative interactions at the weekend, whereas on weekdays, they showed more individual behaviors. Moreover, cortisol levels of breeding pairs and their offspring were higher on weekdays, suggesting that common marmosets living in captivity react to environmental modification by changing their behavioral and hormonal pattern.     

Spatial Niche Segregation of Sympatric Stone Marten and Pine Marten – Avoidance of Competition or Selection of Optimal Habitat?

Coexistence of ecologically similar species relies on differences in one or more dimensions of their ecological niches, such as space, time and resources in diel and/or seasonal scales. However, niche differentiation may result from other mechanisms such as avoidance of high predation pressure, different adaptations or requirements of ecologically similar species. Stone marten (Martes foina) and pine marten (Martes martes) occur sympatrically over a large area in Central Europe and utilize similar habitats and food, therefore it is expected that their coexistence requires differentiation in at least one of their niche dimensions or the mechanisms through which these dimensions are used. To test this hypothesis, we used differences in the species activity patterns and habitat selection, estimated with a resource selection function (RSF), to predict the relative probability of occurrence of the two species within a large forest complex in the northern geographic range of the stone marten. Stone martens were significantly heavier, have a longer body and a better body condition than pine martens. We found weak evidence for temporal niche segregation between the species. Stone and pine martens were both primarily nocturnal, but pine martens were active more frequently during the day and significantly reduced the duration of activity during autumn-winter. Stone and pine martens utilized different habitats and almost completely separated their habitat niches. Stone marten strongly preferred developed areas and avoided meadows and coniferous or deciduous forests. Pine marten preferred deciduous forest and small patches covered by trees, and avoided developed areas and meadows. We conclude that complete habitat segregation of the two marten species facilitates sympatric coexistence in this area. However, spatial niche segregation between these species was more likely due to differences in adaptation to cold climate, avoidance of high predator pressure and/or food preferences by both species than competitive interaction between them.     

Habitat characteristics of Eurasian pine martens Martes martes in an insular Mediterranean environment

Eurasian pine martens are considered habitat specialists, associated primarily with mature stands of mesic mixed wood forest habitats, and avoid areas without overhead cover The species is found throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the continent but on the Mediterranean island of Minorca, introduced pine martens thrive in a competitor- and predator-free environment I test the prediction that because of evolved prey-capture and predator avoidance strategies Minorcan martens should select habitats most similar to temperate and northern parts of their range Scat index routes were used to quantify pine marten habitat selection Marten did not demonstrate any habitat type preferences although observed use of pine forests and coastal shrublands was slighly greater than expected Marten were indifferent to overhead cover whereas mesic sites and areas of tall high shrub density were favored Small mammal trap indices and preferred prey suggested that martens commonly used non-forested areas My results demonstrated that on Minorca pine martens were habitat generalists In the absence of predators open non-forested habitats were equally important to pine marten as were forested ones     

Seasonal and sexual variation in diel activity rhythms of pine martenMartes martes in the Białowieża National Park (Poland)

From 1991–1996, the activity rhythms of 14 radio-collared pine martensMartes martes (Linnaeus, 1758) (6 males and 8 females) were studied in the pristine deciduous and mixed forests of the Białowieża National Park. Tracking data (5823 h) indicated that the activity rhythms of pine martens varied between sexes and seasons. In spring, male activity peaked at 20.00–00.00 h, whereas in summer and autumn-winter, activity was bimodal, peaking at 18.00–22.00 h and 02.00–04.00 h. Female activity in spring was more evenly distributed than that of males, but in summer their activity peaked at 20.00–00.00 h, while in autumn-winter females had a bimodal rhythm with peaks at 18.00–20.00 h and 02.00–06.00 h. In breeding females, activity rhythms changed in the course of pregnancy and nursing. On average, martens started their activity 73±209 (SD) min before sunset and finished 87±245 min after sunrise. Females became active earlier than males but both sexes terminated activity at the same time. For both males and females the daily activity rhythm was not related to the diurnal course of temperature.     

Interspecific variation of scent-marking behaviour in wild tamarins, Saguinus mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis.

The scent-marking behaviour of sympatric moustached, Saguinus mystax, and saddle-back tamarins, Saguinus fuscicollis, was compared in order to explore interspecific differences and potential sources of variation. The author examined basic patterns of scent marking (types, intensity, complexity), substrate use (type, orientation, height), and social patterning of scent marking in three groups of S. mystax and one group of S. fuscicollis at the Estación Biológica Quebrada Blanco, Peruvian Amazonia. S. mystax and S. fuscicollis differed significantly in the relative frequency of different types, and in the intensity and complexity of scent marking. Only S. fuscicollis showed allomarking. They also differed significantly in the type, orientation and height of substrates used for scent marking which corresponded to general differences in substrate use. In S. fuscicollis, but very rarely in S. mystax, two or more group members marked the same site sequentially or simultaneously. 'Collective scent marking', i.e. simultaneous scent marking by most or all group members, occurred only in S. fuscicollis. Since both tamarin species live sympatrically in mixed-species groups, ecological factors are unlikely to account for the differences found in scent-marking behaviour (except for differences in substrate use). They probably relate to as yet unknown differences in social and reproductive strategies of the two species.     

Reduced scent marking and ultrasonic vocalizations in the BTBR T+tf/J mouse model of autism

Qualitative impairments in communication, such as delayed language and poor interactive communication skills, are fundamental to the diagnosis of autism. Investigations into social communication in adult BTBR T+tf/J (BTBR) mice are needed to determine whether this inbred strain incorporates phenotypes relevant to the second diagnostic symptom of autism, communication deficits, along with its strong behavioral phenotypes relevant to the first and third diagnostic symptoms, impairments in social interactions and high levels of repetitive behavior. The aim of the present study was to simultaneously measure female urine‐elicited scent marking and ultrasonic vocalizations in adult male BTBR mice, in comparison with a standard control strain with high sociability, C57BL/6J (B6), for the assessment of a potential communication deficit in BTBR. Adult male BTBR mice displayed lower scent marking and minimal ultrasonic vocalization responses to female urine obtained from both B6 and BTBR females. Lower scent marking and ultrasonic vocalizations in a social setting by BTBR, as compared with B6, are consistent with the well‐replicated social deficits in this inbred mouse strain. Our findings support the interpretation that BTBR incorporate communication deficits, and suggest that scent marking and ultrasonic vocalizations offer promising measures of interest in social cues that may be widely applicable to investigations of mouse models of autism.