Creating a sustainable commercial harvest of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Laminaria hyperborea</Emphasis>, in Norway

The mechanized harvesting of Laminaria hyperborea in Norway began nearly 50 years ago. Based on a clear understanding of the ecology and life cycle of L. hyperborea as well as the ecosystem, a sustainable management program for the harvest was created with a 5-year cycle and rotating zones in fields as the foundation of the plan. This has allowed a steady annual harvest of 130,000–180,000 t wet weight, depending on market demand. In the last decade, the Norwegian government, working with industry and other stakeholders, has produced more refined policies/documents governing the harvest. This macroalgal harvest plan provides an excellent example for resource managers in other parts of the world laboring to create sustainable harvest management plans.     

Contribution of “Women’s Gold” to West African Livelihoods: The Case of Shea (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitellaria paradoxa</Emphasis>) in Burkina Faso

Contribution of “Women’s Gold” to West African Livelihoods: The Case of Shea ( Vitellaria paradoxa ) in Burkina Faso. This paper (i) quantifies the contribution that Vitellaria paradoxa makes to the total income of rural households belonging to different economic groups in two areas of Burkina Faso; (ii) quantifies the involvement of women in shea nuts and fruits collection and processing; and (iii) empirically verifies the “gap filling” function of shea products in Burkina Faso by quantifying the commercialization and subsistence use of shea fruits, nuts, and butter between agricultural seasons. Based on data collected from structured household surveys used on a quarterly basis during a one-year period on 536 households, we demonstrate that the reliance on shea is generally high in the sampled populations, and is at its highest for the poorest households, for which it contributes 12 % of total household income. Moreover, shea nut collection and processing was found to provide a valuable source of cash income to female household members who otherwise have very few income possibilities. Finally, due to its ecology, shea fills in an income gap during a period where human activities are at their highest while income is at its lowest. Although shea is crucial for poor people’s livelihoods and for the generation of income for women, its harvesting and processing are time-consuming activities that generate low returns per unit of labor. We argue that shea collection and processing should therefore not be considered as a remedy to poverty but instead as a way for households to diversify their livelihood strategy and decrease their vulnerability to food insecurity and climate variability.     

Habitat,density, and spatial distribution of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rivulus giarettai</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Actinopterygii</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyprinodontiformes</Emphasis>) in southeastern Brazil

We present data on the habitat, density, and spatial distribution of Rivulus giarettai, and discuss some biotic and abiotic variables related to its abundance in Free Flowing Waters (FFW) and Dam Reservoirs (DR) in palm grove (Mauritia flexuosa) marshes (Veredas) in Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. The mean density (individuals/plot) of R. giarettai was about 13 times higher in FFW than in DR. In FFW, the density of R. giarettai was highest at intermediate amounts of substrate (plant mass) and it was positively rank-correlated with the depth, and the number of arthropods. Individuals occurred in an aggregated distribution. The aggregated pattern could be related to a concentration of individuals in microhabitats neither too much exposed nor completely saturated by plants. R. giarettai was relatively abundant and tolerant to slight man-made habitat modifications. Damming appeared to be especially problematic by negatively affecting its density.     

The host range and biology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cometaster pyrula</Emphasis>; a biocontrol agent for <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia nilotica</Emphasis> subsp. <Emphasis Type="Italic">indica</Emphasis> in Australia

Prickly acacia, Acacia nilotica subsp. indica (Benth.) Brenan, a major weed of the Mitchell Grass Downs of northern Queensland, Australia, has been the target of biological control projects since the 1980s. The leaf-feeding caterpillar Cometaster pyrula (Hopffer) was collected from Acacia nilotica subsp. kraussiana (Benth.) Brenan during surveys in South Africa to find suitable biological control agents, recognised as a potential agent, and shipped into a quarantine facility in Australia. Cometaster pyrula has a life cycle of approximately 2 months during which time the larvae feed voraciously and reach 6 cm in length. Female moths oviposit a mean of 339 eggs. When presented with cut foliage of 77 plant species, unfed neonates survived for 7 days on only Acacia nilotica subsp. indica and Acacia nilotica subsp. kraussiana. When unfed neonates were placed on potted plants of 14 plant species, all larvae except those on Acacia nilotica subsp. indica and Acacia nilotica subsp. kraussiana died within 10 days of placement. Cometaster pyrula was considered to be highly host specific and safe to release in Australia. Permission to release C. pyrula in Australia was obtained and the insect was first released in north Queensland in October 2004. The ecoclimatic model CLIMEX indicated that coastal Queensland was climatically suitable for this insect but that inland areas were only marginally suitable.     

Distribution of two species of sea snakes, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aipysurus laevis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Emydocephalus annulatus</Emphasis>, in the southern Great Barrier Reef: metapopulation dynamics,marine protected areas and conservation

Aipysurus laevis and Emydocephalus annulatus typically occur in spatially discrete populations, characteristic of metapopulations; however, little is known about the factors influencing the spatial and temporal stability of populations or whether specific conservation strategies, such as networks of marine protected areas, will ensure the persistence of species. Classification tree analyses of 35 years of distribution data (90 reefs, surveyed 1–11 times) in the southern Great Barrier Reef (GBR) revealed that longitude was a major factor determining the status of A. laevis on reefs (present = 38, absent = 38 and changed = 14). Reef exposure and reef area were also important; however, these factors did not specifically account for the population fluctuations and the recent local extinctions of A. laevis in this region. There were no relationships between the status of E. annulatus (present = 16, absent = 68 and changed = 6) and spatial or physical variables. Moreover, prior protection status of reefs did not account for the distribution of either species. Biotic factors, such as habitat and prey availability and the distribution of predators, which may account for the observed patterns of distribution, are discussed. The potential for inter-population exchange among sea snake populations is poorly understood, as is the degree of protection that will be afforded to sea snakes by the recently implemented network of No-take areas in the GBR. Data from this study provide a baseline for evaluating the responses of A. laevis and E. annulatus populations to changes in biotic factors and the degree of protection afforded on reefs within an ecosystem network of No-take marine protected areas in the southern GBR. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Conservation status of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Prodontria</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) species in New Zealand

The genus Prodontria (Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae), which comprises 16 described species, is an endemic southern New Zealand genus occupying lowland and coastal habitats, inter-montane basins and alpine environments. Many of the species have a limited distribution and face potential threats from habitat change and predation. The only species to be formally protected is P. lewisii Broun, commonly known as the Cromwell Chafer, which is now restricted to a 81-ha reserve in Central Otago. One undescribed lowland species might be extinct as a result of habitat modification. The current status of Prodontria species, the known distribution of species and potential threats are discussed. An erratum to this article can be found at     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Aedes aegypti</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aedes albopictus</Emphasis> in Bermuda: extinction,invasion, invasion and extinction

We provide an analysis of the invasion and spread of the container inhabiting mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in the Bermuda Islands. Considered eradicated in the mid-1960s, A. aegypti was redetected in 1997, and A. albopictus was first detected in 2000. Based on weekly ovitrap data collected during the early stages of the invasion, we mapped the spread of Aedes throughout the islands. We analyzed the effects of buildings and roads on mosquito density and found a significant association between density and distance to roads, but not to buildings. We discuss the potential role of human transport in the rapid spread in the islands. The temporal correlation in ovitrap collection values decreased progressively, suggesting that habitat degradation due to control efforts were responsible for local shifts in mosquito densities. We report a sharp decrease in A. aegypti presence and abundance after the arrival of A. albopictus in the year 2000. Possible mechanisms for this rapid decline at relatively low density of the second invader are discussed in the context of classical competition theory and earlier experimental results from Florida, as well as alternative explanations. We suggest that support for the competition hypothesis to account for the decline of A. aegypti is ambiguous and likely to be an incomplete explanation.     

Presence of <Emphasis Type="Italic">C. albidus</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">C. laurentii</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">C. uniguttulatus</Emphasis> in Crop and Droppings of Pigeon Lofts (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Columba livia</Emphasis>)

Columba livia is an important reservoir and carrier of Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus uniguttulatus, Cryptococcus laurentii and Cryptococcus albidus. Upper digestive tract of this species is also known as a habitat for Cryptococcus neoformans. Given the increasing clinical interest of this microorganism, 331 swabs from crop and 174 dropping samples from pigeon lofts in Grand Canary Island have been studied. The obtained results show an extensive presence samples 81 positive (24.47%) of Cryptococcus spp. in analysed crops: 32 (9.66%) for C. neoformans, 24 (7.2%) for C. uniguttulatus, 23 (6.9%) for C. albidus and 2 (0.6%) for C. laurentii. In the same way, Cryptococcus spp was also isolated in 82 (47.13%), dropping samples: C. neoformans in 59 (33.9%), C. uniguttulatus, in 9 (5.17%), C. laurentii in 8 (4.59%) and C. albidus in 6 (3.44%) of the investigated samples, respectively. The cryptococcosis produced by species of cryptococci other than C. neoformans has become more important during the last decade, supporting the study on the role of pigeon in the epidemiology of this disease.     

Three-dimensional reconstruction of mushroom body neuropils in the polychaete species <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nereis diversicolor</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Harmothoe areolata</Emphasis> (Phyllodocida,Annelida)

Mushroom bodies are prominent brain neuropils present in most arthropod representatives. Similar structures in the brain of certain polychaete species are possibly homologous to these structures. Using three-dimensional reconstruction techniques, we investigated the structural composition of the mushroom body neuropils in the polychaete species Nereis diversicolor and Harmothoe areolata. Comparative analysis revealed a common organization of neuropil substructures in both species that closely matches the basic assembly of arthropod mushroom bodies. Concurring with earlier homology assessments, these neuroarchitectural similarities provide support for a common origin of mushroom body neuropils in polychaetes and arthropods. Beyond that, differences in the morphological differentiation of neuropil substructures indicate polychaete mushroom bodies to show a high degree of morphological variability, thus impeding the quest for a common ground pattern of these brain centers.     

Estuarine habitat preferences of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anguilla australis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">A. reinhardtii</Emphasis> glass eels as inferred from laboratory experiments

We tested the habitat preferences of Anguilla australis (shortfin) and A. reinhardtii (longfin) glass eels using circular tanks in an aquarium, containing four types of estuarine habitat (sand, mud, rocks/cobbles and seagrass). Shortfin eels either showed a tendency to occur in heterogeneous habitats, or in rocks/cobbles. Longfin glass eels showed a significant preference for rocks/cobbles in both experiments. Tests on shortfin and longfin glass eels in tanks with only rocks/cobbles available showed that eels were not clumped, indicating that individuals select habitat for re-settlement independently. Therefore, we assumed that the uneven distribution of glass eels observed in the habitat type experiments were the result of habitat preference. Given a choice of habitats in tank experiments, shortfin and longfin glass eels preferred habitats containing structure, and in particular, rocks/cobbles.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Haploporus subtrameteus</Emphasis> (Polyporaceae,Basidiomycota) found in Japan

Haploporus subtrameteus, a rare polypore, is newly reported for Japan. This fungus was known only from three localities in the Russian Far East, Altai Mts., and three in China. The Japanese material was on a dead tree of Padus grayana around Aokigahara-marubi, Mt. Fuji. This article gives detailed morphology based on the Japanese collection and a photo in the natural habitat.     

A quantitative comparison of two sample methods for collecting <Emphasis Type="Italic">Amblyomma americanum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dermacentor variabilis</Emphasis> (Acari: Ixodidae) in Missouri

In studies of tick communities, sampling methodology may influence observed patterns. The objective of this study was to compare two sampling methods, dragging and dry ice baiting, in two habitats to assess abundance of off-host ticks. Tick communities were monitored from March to December in a forested and an old-field habitat in northeast Missouri. In each habitat, eight drag and eight dry ice bait samples were collected every 2 weeks on a permanent grid. The most common ticks collected were all life stages of Amblyomma americanum L. and adult and larval Dermacentor variabilis Say. Capture data was analyzed to determine if there were differences due to sampling method, habitat or an interaction for each life stage of each species across the entire monitoring period. Data indicate that there were differences in the methods. Significantly more A. americanum nymphs were captured by bait sampling. Dragging captured significantly more larval A. americanum. Significantly more larval and nymphal A. americanum and larval D. variabilis were caught in the forest, whereas significantly more adult D. variabilis were collected in the field. Significant interaction between site and method was found for A. americanum adults and D. variabilis larvae. These differences are likely due to differences in behavior among species and developmental age that interact with microclimate. These data indicate that community monitoring studies should use multiple sampling methodologies to avoid bias. While comparing these methods, the first documented collection of off-host Ixodes scapularis Say in Adair County, Missouri was made.     

Survey of Helminth Parasites in Populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta palliata mexicana</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">A. pigra</Emphasis> in Continuous and in Fragmented Habitat in Southern Mexico

The 2 howler species that occur in southern Mexico, Alouatta palliata mexicana and Alouatta pigra are endangered, mainly as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation from human activity. Little is known about the gastrointestinal parasite communities affecting their populations, and lack of baseline information for populations of howler species in continuous forest habitats, makes evaluations of gastrointestinal parasite prevalence in populations in fragmented landscapes difficult. We report the results of a one-time broad survey of gastrointestinal parasites in fecal samples of individuals from several demographically stable populations of Alouatta palliata mexicana and A. pigra existing in continuous and/or protected forests. We further report similar data for populations of both species in human-fragmented landscapes. We detected 6 parasites for each howler monkey species, but only 3 of them (Trematode I, Controrchis biliophilus, Trypanoxyuris sp.) were common to both species. While parasitic prevalence in populations of both howler species was, in general, higher in the fragmented habitat than in continuous and/or protected forests. The difference is only marginally significant in Alouatta pigra. Some parasites (Coccidia and Strongylid) only appeared in populations in fragmented landscapes. Preliminary data suggest that adult males tended to have higher parasite prevalence values than those of adult females in both howler species. Parasite prevalence is associated to average group size, but not to population density in Alouatta pigra.     

Cytological studies of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agaricus brasiliensis</Emphasis>

Agaricus brasiliensis is a medicinal mushroom native to Brazil. It was first identified as Agaricus blazei and its scientific name continues to be debated. We examined the cytology of different Brazilian commercial strains of A. brasiliensis and the nuclear behavior of strain CS1 during basidiospore development using fluorescent microscopy. All strains have multinucleate hyphae and no significant differences in nuclei numbers were observed between them. Basidia from A. brasiliensis strain CS1 are typically tetrasporics and produce binucleate basidiospores, demonstrating that a postmeiotic mitosis occurs during basidiospore development. This result suggests that A. brasiliensis is primarily a heterothallic species.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus anthracis</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Francisella tularensis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Yersinia pestis</Emphasis>. The most important bacterial warfare agents — <Emphasis Type="Italic">review</Emphasis>

There are three most important bacterial causative agents of serious infections that could be misused for warfare purposes: Bacillus anthracis (the causative agent of anthrax) is the most frequently mentioned one; however, Fracisella tularensis (causing tularemia) and Yersinia pestis (the causative agent of plague) are further bacterial agents enlisted by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention into the category A of potential biological weapons. This review intends to summarize basic information about these bacterial agents. Military aspects of their pathogenesis and the detection techniques suitable for field use are discussed.     

Study on the scavenging and anti-<Emphasis Type="Italic">Staphylococcus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">aureus</Emphasis> activities of the extracts,fractions and subfractions of two <Emphasis Type="Italic">Volvariella volvacea</Emphasis> strains

Scavenging and anti-Staphylococcus aureus activities of extracts, fractions and subfractions from the in vitro mycelium of two strains of the edible mushroom Volvariella volvacea were determined. Chloroform subfractions of the ATCC62890 strain showed the highest inhibition percentage of the DPPH radical (over 80%) after 180 min. When chloroform and hexane subfractions of the R83 strain were combined they showed moderate (inhibition zone of 8.99 ± 0.78 mm) to high (inhibition zone of 13.06 ± 0.41 mm) activity against the Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, which are 74.4 and 51.2% of tetracycline (inhibition zone of 17.55 ± 0.11 mm). Partitioning suggested that the substances in the chloroform and hexane fractions of the R83 strain act synergistically to give the antimicrobial activity, while separating the substances of the ATCC62890 subfractions reduced their activity. In general, the R83 strain seems to be a source of antimicrobial substances, while the ATCC62890 strain appears to be an alternative source of antioxidants.     

Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in the Brazilian orchid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Epidendrum fulgens</Emphasis>

Epidendrum fulgens has a patchy distribution along the Atlantic Rainforest in the Brazilian coast, due to the destruction of its native habitat. Here, we report on both the development of nine new microsatellite markers isolated from this species and the characterization of their allele variability in two distant and unrelated populations. The number of alleles observed for each locus ranged from 2 to 17 with an average of 6.4 alleles per locus. These microsatellites should be valuable tools for studying the effect of habitat fragmentation on the genetic structure of E. fulgens populations.     

Discovery of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ophiostoma tsotsi</Emphasis> on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus</Emphasis> wood chips in China

Ophiostoma species such as O. quercus are the most frequent causal agents of sapstain of freshly felled hardwood timber and pulpwood. Many species are regarded as economically important agents of wood degradation. The aim of this study was to identify a collection of Ophiostoma isolates, resembling O. quercus, found on stained Eucalyptus pulpwood chips in China. DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions, including the 5.8S region, of the ribosomal DNA, and parts of the β-tubulin and elongation factor-1α genes, revealed that the isolates were not O. quercus. Surprisingly, they represented O. tsotsi, a wound-infesting fungus recently described from hardwoods in Africa. In addition, sequence data from an isolate from agarwood in Vietnam, identified in a previous study as belonging to an unknown Pesotum species, were also shown to represent O. tsotsi. A high level of genetic variability was observed among isolates of both O. quercus and O. tsotsi. This was unexpected and suggests that both species have been present in Asia for a significant amount of time.     

Parasitic microfungi of the Tatra Mountains: 5. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Plasmopara</Emphasis> representatives on the species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Geranium</Emphasis>

A list of species and the distribution of the members of Plasmopara (Chromista, Peronosporales) on Geranium spp. in the Tatra National Park (Western Carpathians) biospheric reserve are given. Three fungal species parasitizing 3 plant species were recorded in the area. Plasmopara praetermissa is a species new to Poland and Slovakia.