佛波酯对NIH3T3细胞整合蛋白α_5亚基表达的影响

１００ｎｍｏｌ／Ｌ佛波酯（１２－Ｏ－ｔｅｔｒａｄｅｃａｎｏｙｌｐｈｏｂｏｌ１３－ａｃｅｔａｔｅ,ＴＰＡ）作用于ＮＩＨ３Ｔ３细胞２４ｈ,流式细胞仪检测到细胞表面整合蛋白α５亚基含量增加５２．３％．Ｎｏｒｔｈｅｒｎ杂交方法测定结果亦表明整合蛋白α５亚基ｍＲＮＡ量增加,于２ｈ时达到高峰,为对照的４．１４倍．蛋白激酶Ｃ（ｐｒｏｔｅｉｎｋｉｎａｓｅＣ,ＰＫＣ）的活性增加趋势与之基本一致．运用ＰＫＣ的抑制剂鞘氨醇（ｓｐｈｉｎｇｏ－ｓｉｎｅ）和酷氨酸激酶（ｔｙｒｏｓｉｎｅｋｉｎａｓｅ,ＴＫ）抑制剂４,５,７－三羟基异黄酮（ｇｅｎｅｓｔｅｉｎ）进一步研究,发现两者均可抑制佛波酯对整合蛋白α５亚基表达的上调作用．提示佛波酯对ＮＩＨ３Ｔ３细胞整合蛋白α５亚基表达的调控与ＰＫＣ和ＴＫ均有关．     

5-HT和NA增强大鼠骶髓后连合核神经元甘氨酸门控Cl~-通道电流由蛋白激酶介导

用制霉菌素穿孔膜片钳方法研究５－ＨＴ和ＮＡ对急性分离的大鼠骶髓后连合核神经元甘氨酸门控氯离子通道电流（ＩＧｌｙ）的调控作用及其胞内机制。发现：（１）５－ＨＴ激活与非胰岛激活蛋白（ＩＡＰ）敏感型Ｇ蛋白偶联的５－ＨＴ２受体亚型,激活磷脂酶Ｃ（ＰＬＣ）,增加甘油二酯（ＤＡＧ）的生成。ＤＡＧ增强不依赖Ｃａ２＋的新型ＰＫＣ（ｎＰＫＣ）的活性,从而增强ＩＧｌｙ;（２）ＮＡ激活与ＩＡＰ敏感型Ｇ蛋白偶联的α２受体,抑制腺苷酸环化酶（ＡＣ）,减少ｃＡＭＰ的生成,使ＰＫＡ活性降低,从而增强ＩＧｌｙ。     

佛波酯对A—549细胞株中蛋白激酶C的调节

探讨了佛波酯（ｐｈｏｒｂｏｌ １２－ｍｙｒｉｓｔａｔｅ １３－ａｃｅｔａｔｅ,ＰＭＡ）对人肺癌表皮细胞株Ａ－５４９细胞中数种蛋白激酶Ｃ（ｐｒｏｔｅｉｎ ｋｉｎａｓｅ Ｃ,ＰＫＣ）亚型的调节作用,用蛋白质免疫印迹法在Ａ－５４９细胞中检测到有ＰＫＣ－α、ＰＫＣ－βⅡ、ＰＫＣ－γ、ＰＫＣ－δ和ＰＫＣ－ε等亚型的表达,但未检测到ＰＫＣ－ζ的表达。ＰＭＡ对细胞的短时间处理诱导所有这５种亚型的不同程序的转位（     

丝裂素活化蛋白激酶参与内皮素刺激的兔主动脉平滑肌细胞增生

内皮素（ｅｎｄｏｔｈｅｌｉｎ,ＥＴ）是已知的体内活性最强的缩血管物质,其缩血管作用由Ｇ蛋白偶联受体所介导。但ＥＴ强大的促血管平滑肌细胞（ＶＳＭＣ）增生效应的机理尚未完全阐明。本研究选用培养的兔胸主动脉ＶＳＭＣ,探讨丝裂素活化蛋白激酶（ＭＡＰＫ）在ＥＴ促细胞增生中的作用。结果表明：ＥＴ－１呈时间和浓度依赖性地促进细胞摄取￣３Ｈ－ＴｄＲ和激活ＭＡＰＫ,此作用可被蛋白激酶Ｃ（ｐｒｏｔｅｉｎｋｉｎａｓｅＣ,ＰＫＣ）抑制剂Ｓｔａｕｒｏｓｐｏｒｉｎｅ（ＳＴＰ）,Ｈ－７和ＥＴ＿Ａ受体拮抗剂ＢＱ１２３所抑制,但不被酪氨酸激酶抑制剂ＨｅｒｂｉｍｙｃｉｎＡ（Ｈｅｒｂ）所抑制,用ＰＫＣ激动剂ＰＭＡ（Ｐｈｏｒｂｏｌｍｙｒｉｓｔａｔｅａｃｅｔａｔｅ）预处理ＶＳＭＣ,使其ＰＫＣ活性下调,可显著减弱ＥＴ－１对ＭＡＰＫ的激活能力。本结果提示：（１）ＭＡＰＫ参与ＥＴ－１所致的ＶＳＭＣ增生;（２）ＥＴ－１促细胞增生与激活ＭＡＰＫ的作用是由ＥＴ＿Ａ受体和ＰＫＣ介导的。     

二酰甘油－蛋白激酶C信使系统在LA90细胞转化中的作用

以ＬＡ９０细胞（ＲＳＶ温度敏感突变株ＬＡ９０转化的小鼠成纤维细胞〕为模型,研究了二酰甘油（ＤＧ）－蛋白激酶Ｃ（ＰＫＣ）信使系统在细胞转化中的作用。通过免疫沉淀法观察到ＬＡ９０细胞在允许温度（３３℃）时具有很高的ｐｐ６０ｖ－ｓｒｃ激酶活性,远高于非允许温度（３９℃）,当从３９℃转至３３℃１０分钟,激酶活性就已显著升高。同时运用３Ｈ－甘油掺入并结合板层析分离方法和酶活性测定,发现ＬＡ９０细胞中ＤＧ含量和ＰＫＣ活性在３３℃条件下高于３９℃,当由３９℃转至３３℃１０分钟,细胞内ＤＧ含量和ＰＫＣ活性均明显增加。我们进一步探讨了ＰＫＣ活性与癌基因ｖ－ｓｅｒ、ｐ５３基因表达的相关性,实验表明,ＰＫＣ的激活剂ＴＰＡ可刺激３９℃条件下的ＬＡ９０细胞中ｖ－ｓｒｅ和ｐ５３基因表达,ＰＫＣ选择性抑制剂Ｈ７可抑制３３℃条件下ＬＡ９０细胞中ｖ－ｅｒｃ和ｐ５３基因表达。看来,ｐｐ６０ｖ－ｓｒｃ可通过刺激磷脂酰肌醇（ＰＩ）代谢激活ＤＧ－ＰＫＣ（ｄｉａｃｙｌｇｌｙｃｅｒｏｌ－ｐｒｏｔｅｉｎｋｉｎａｓｅＣ）信使系统,后者通过某种途径调控ｖ－ｓｒｃ和ｐ５３等癌基因之表达。因此ＤＧ－ＰＫＣ信使系统可能是ｐｐ６０ｖ－ｓｒｃ转化细胞及被转化细胞维持转     

毛喉萜抑制人胃癌细胞BGC－823增殖与ras基因表达相关性研究

毛喉萜（ｆｏｒｓｋｏｌｉｎ）对人胄癌细胞ＢＧＣ－８２３增殖有明显抑制作用,具药物剂量和作用时间之依赖性。剂量为２×１０~（－５）ｍｏｌ／Ｌ之毛喉萜使胃癌细胞在软琼脂中形成集落的能力显著降低;癌基因ｃ－Ｈａ－ｒａｓ之表达明显被抑制,细胞核中与ｒａｓ基因上游调控区２．５ｋｂ片段结合的三种蛋白结合能力下降。联系到以同样浓度药物处理胃癌细胞７２ｈ,细胞质、膜与细胞核中蛋白激酶Ｃ（ＰＫＣ）活性均下降的现象,可能ＰＫＣ活性下降与Ｈａ－ｒａｓ基因上游片段２．５ｋｂ结合蛋白之结合能力下降存在相关性,ＰＫＣ可能通过影响ＤＮＡ结合蛋白的磷酸化作用,导致了Ｈａ－ｒａｓ基因表达之被阻抑。而ｒａｓ基因表达下降可能是毛喉萜抑制胃癌细胞增殖的一个重要分子事件。     

蛋白激酶C对N－乙酰氨基葡萄糖转移酶Ⅲ的调节

人肝癌细胞株７７２１细胞的Ｎ－乙酰氨基葡萄糖转移酶Ⅲ（ＧｎＴⅢ）活性受Ｓｅｒ／Ｔｈｒ蛋白激酶的两种抑制剂ｑｕｅｒｃｅｔｉｎ和三氟吡嗪（ＴＦＰ）．蛋白激酶Ｃ（ＰＫＣ）的两种特异性抑制剂Ｄ－鞘氨醇和ｓｔａｕｒｏｓｐｏｒｉｎｅ的抑制。用ＰＭＡ处理细胞舌,ＧｎＴⅢ活力随膜性ＰＫＣ（ｍ－ＰＫＣ）活力而平行变化,但与胞液ＰＫＣ活力的变化无关。Ｑｕｅｒｃｅｔｉｎ、Ｄ－鞘氨醇和ｓｔａｕｒｏｓｐｏｒｉｎｅ还能够阻断ＰＭＡ对ＧｎＴⅢ的激活。Ｑｕｅｒｃｅｔｉｎ、ｓｔａｕｒｏｓｐｏｒｉｎｅ对ｍ－ＰＫＣ和ＧｎＴⅢ的抑制作用基本上与它们的应用浓度成正比关系。当人及大鼠肾脏的粗ＧｎＴ制剂分别用碱性磷酸酶切除磷酸基后,ＧＤＴⅢ的活力明显下降。这些结果表明ｍ－ＰＫＣ可能通过蛋白质的Ｓｅｒ／Ｔｈｒ残基上磷酸化和去磷酸化作用直接或间接地调节ＧｎＴⅢ。     

小鼠cAMP依赖的蛋白激酶催化亚基α的重组表达研究

将小鼠ｃＡＭＰ依赖的蛋白激酶（ｃＡＰＫ）催化亚基α（ｍＣα）分别以成熟、麦芽糖结合蛋白（ＭＢＰ）融合以及Ｎ端连续六个组氨酸（Ｈｉｓ_６）融合的形式在大肠杆菌中得到了高效表达,且成熟及融合的重组ｍＣα均有明显的蛋白激酶活性,表明蛋白激酶催化核心结构具有相对的独立性。其中Ｈｉｓ_６－ｍＣα可利用金属离子（Ｎｉ￣（２＋））配体亲和层析（Ⅰ－ＭＡＣ）一步纯化,所得融合蛋白可通过Ｈｉｓ_６亲合手臂（Ｔａｇ）固相化于金属离子（Ｎｉ￣（２＋））配体亲和树脂上,为进一步利用ＰｈａｇｅＤｉｓｐｌａｙ多肽库筛选ｃＡＰＫ识别的底物序列和专一性抑制剂打下了基础。     

甲状旁腺素增强成骨样细胞ROS 17/2.8中酪氨酸蛋白磷酸化的研究

为了研究甲状旁腺素（ｐａｒａｔｈｙｒｏｉｄｈｏｒｍｏｎｅ,ＰＴＨ）促成骨样细胞ＲＯＳ１７／２．８增殖分化的信号传递的机理,观察了ＰＴＨ对细胞内酪氨酸蛋白激酶（ｔｙｒｏｓｉｎｅｐｒｏｔｅｉｎｋｉｎａｓｅｓ,ＴＰＫ）活性及酪氨酸蛋白磷酸化水平的影响,并检测了ＰＴＨ对ｃ－ｒａｓｍＲＮＡ表达的诱导作用．结果表明,ＰＴＨ可增强细胞内ＴＰＫ活性,提高细胞内酪氨酸蛋白磷酸化水平,以及促进ｃ－ｒａｓｍＲＮＡ的持续表达．这些结果提示,ＰＴＨ促增殖的细胞内信息传递通路与酪氨酸蛋白激酶－ｒａｓ－ＭＡＰＫｉｎａｓｅ通路密切相关,而ＰＫＡ／ＰＫＣ通路的最终效应可能是通过与上述通路的ｃｒｏｓｓｔａｌｋ实现的     

蛋白激酶C对胰岛素样生长因子—1促糖代谢作用的影响

为了研究蛋白激酶Ｃ（ＰＫＣ）在胰岛素样生长因子－１（ＩＧＦ１）促糖代谢过程中所起的作用,分别检测ＰＣＫ激动剂佛波醇酯（ＰＭＡ）和抑制剂星形孢菌素（Ｓｔａｕｒｏｓｐｏｒｉｎｅ）对ＩＧＦ１降糖作用的影响。结果表明ＰＭＡ和星形孢菌素分别能抑和增强ＩＧＦ１的降糖作用,建立了高表达ＰＫＣα的ＨｅｐＧ２细胞株,ＩＧＦ１对此细胞株的降糖作用与对照相比大大增强,ＰＭＡ和星形孢菌素分别可大大抑制和增强ＩＧＦ１对ＰＣ     

Protein Phosphorylation Induced by Phorbol Esters and Cyclic AMP in Anterior Pituitary Cells: Possible Role in Adrenocorticotropin Release and Synthesis

Forskolin, an activator of adenylate cyclase, stimulates adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) release and increases proopiomelanocortin mRNA levels in anterior pituitary cells by enhancing cyclic AMP (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase activity. The phorbol ester phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) evokes these same responses from anterior pituitary cells by activating protein kinase C. Both protein kinases most likely induce their cellular effects by catalyzing the phosphorylation of specific proteins. To elucidate the mechanisms by which cAMP-dependent protein kinase and protein kinase C promote ACTH secretion and synthesis, the phosphoproteins regulated by forskolin and PMA were identified in the cell line AtT-20, which consists of a homogeneous population of corticotrophs. Phosphoproteins were analyzed in different subcellular fractions by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and autoradiography. Forskolin increased phosphate incorporation into two proteins in the cytoplasmic fraction of 24 kilodaltons (kd) (pI 6.8) and 40 kd (pI 5.8), two proteins in the plasma membrane fraction of 32 kd (pI 8.3) and 60 kd (pI 8), and one protein in the nuclear fraction of 20 kd (pI 8.7). Insertion of the inhibitor of cAMP-dependent protein kinase into the AtT-20 cells, using a liposome technique, blocked the rise in phosphate incorporation induced by forskolin. PMA also stimulated phosphate incorporation into proteins in AtT-20 cells. PMA increased the phosphorylation of three cytoplasmic proteins of 25 kd (pI 7.6), 40 kd (pI 5.8), and 40 kd (pI 8.1) as well as two membrane proteins of 32 kd (pI 8.3) and 60 kd (pI 8) and one nuclear protein of 20 kd (pI 6.3).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Staurosporine Activates a 60,000 Mr Protein Kinase in Bovine Chromaffin Cells That Phosphorylates Myelin Basic Protein In Vitro

Abstract: Bovine chromaffin cells contain a family of renaturable protein kinases. One of these, a 60,000 M_r kinase (PK60) that phosphorylated myelin basic protein in vitro, was activated fourfold when cells were treated with the protein kinase inhibitor Staurosporine. Because staurosporine inhibits protein kinase C, the role of this kinase in the regulation of PK60 activity was investigated. Fifty nanomolar Staurosporine produced half-maximal inhibition of protein kinase C activity in chromaffin cells, whereas ∼225 n M Staurosporine was required to induce half-maximal activation of PK60. Other protein kinase C inhibitors, H-7 and K-252a, did not mimic the effect of Staurosporine on PK60 activity. Chromaffin cells have three protein kinase C isoforms: α, ε, and ζ. Prolonged treatment with phorbol esters depleted the cells of protein kinase C α and ε, but not ζ. Neither activation nor depletion of protein kinase C affected the basal activity of PK60. Moreover, Staurosporine activated PK60 in cells depleted of protein kinase C α and e; thus, Staurosporine appeared to activate PK60 by a mechanism that does not require these protein kinase C isoforms. Incubation of cell extracts with Staurosporine in vitro did not activate PK60. Incubation of these extracts with adenosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate), however, caused a twofold activation of PK60. Although this suggests that PK60 activity is regulated by phosphorylation, the mechanism by which Staurosporine activates PK60 is not known. Staurosporine has been reported to promote neurite outgrowth from chromaffin cells. The role of PK60 in mediating the effects of Staurosporine on chromaffin cell function remains to be determined.     

PKC、PKA和TPK在血小板激活中的作用

利用~（３２）Ｐ－ＮａＨ_２ＰＯ_４标记猪血小板,然后以ＰＭＡ、凝血酶、ＰＧＥ_１、腺苷等处理,结果表明,随着ＰＭＡ激活ＰＫＣ,血小板发生聚集。３５μｍｏｌ／ＬＰＧＥ_１或１ｍｍｏｌ／ＬｄｂｃＡＭＰ不能抑制５０ｎｍｏｌ／ＬＰＭＡ诱导的血小板聚集,腺苷却能抑制ＰＭＡ诱导的血小板聚集（ＥＣ_（５０）＝０．１ｍｍｏｌ／Ｌ）,ｄｂ－ｃＡＭＰ、腺苷都不能抑制１００ｎｍｏｌ／ＬＰＭＡ诱导的４０ｋＤ蛋白磷酸化。ＰＫＡ激活不能抑制ＰＭＡ激活的ＰＫＣ。在ＰＭＡ、凝血酶激活的血小板中,ＰＫＣ、ＴＰＫ都发生激活,４０ｋＤ底物既是ＰＫＣ的底物又是ＴＰＫ的底物,ＰＫＣ和ＴＰＫ在血小板聚集中起着重要的调节作用。     

Epidermal growth factor induces oxidative neuronal injury in cortical culture

Recently, we have demonstrated that certain neurotrophic factors can induce oxidative neuronal necrosis by acting at the cognate tyrosine kinase-linked receptors. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) has neurotrophic effects via the tyrosine kinase-linked EGF receptor (EGFR), but its neurotoxic potential has not been studied. Here, we examined this possibility in mouse cortical culture. Exposure of cortical cultures to 1-100 ng/ml EGF induced gradually developing neuronal death, which was complete in 48-72 h; no injury to astrocytes was noted. Electron microscopic findings of EGF-induced neuronal death were consistent with necrosis; severe mitochondrial swelling and disruption of cytoplasmic membrane occurred, whereas nuclei appeared relatively intact. The EGF-induced neuronal death was accompanied by increased free radical generation and blocked by the anti-oxidant Trolox. Suggesting mediation by the EGFR, an EGFR tyrosine kinase-specific inhibitor, C56, attenuated EGF-induced neuronal death. In addition, inhibitors of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (Erk-1/2) (PD98056), protein kinase A (H89), and protein kinase C (GF109203X) blocked EGF-induced neuronal death. A p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor (SB203580) or glutamate antagonists (MK-801 and 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione) showed no protective effect. The present results suggest that prolonged activation of the EGFR may trigger oxidative neuronal injury in central neurons.     

Effect of Zinc on Calmodulin-Stimulated Protein Kinase II and Protein Phosphorylation in Rat Cerebral Cortex

The effect of increasing concentrations of Zn2+ (1 microM-5 mM) on protein phosphorylation was investigated in cytosol (S3) and crude synaptic plasma membrane (P2-M) fractions from rat cerebral cortex and purified calmodulin-stimulated protein kinase II (CMK II). Zn2+ was found to be a potent inhibitor of both protein kinase and protein phosphatase activities, with highly specific effects on CMK II. Only one phosphoprotein band (40 kDa in P2-M phosphorylated under basal conditions) was unaffected by addition of Zn2+. The vast majority of phosphoprotein bands in both basal and calcium/calmodulin-stimulated conditions showed a dose-dependent inhibition of phosphorylation, which varied with individual phosphoproteins. Two basal phosphoprotein bands (58 and 66 kDa in S3) showed a significant stimulation of phosphorylation at 100 microM Zn2+ with decreased stimulation at higher concentrations, which was absent by 5 mM Zn2+. A few Ca2+/calmodulin-stimulated phosphoproteins in P2-M and S3 showed biphasic behavior; inhibition at less than 100 microM Zn2+ and stimulation by millimolar concentrations of Zn2+ in the presence or absence of added Ca2+/calmodulin. The two major phosphoproteins in this group were identified as the alpha and beta subunits of CMK II. Using purified enzyme, Zn2+ was shown to have two direct effects on CMK II: an inhibition of Ca2+/calmodulin-stimulated autophosphorylation and substrate phosphorylation activity at low concentrations and the creation of a new Zn(2+)-stimulated, Ca2+/calmodulin-independent activity at concentrations of greater than 100 microM that produces a redistribution of activity biased toward autophosphorylation and an alpha subunit with an altered mobility on sodium dodecyl sulfate-containing gels.     

The genes encoding cAMP-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit homologues of the microsporidia Encephalitozoon intestinalis and E. cuniculi: molecular characterisation and phylogenetic analysis

A gene encoding a protein kinase was identified by homology-based PCR amplification in Encephalitozoon intestinalis, a microsporidian parasite pathogenic to humans, and its orthologue has been identified by database mining in the genome of the related species E. cuniculi, whose sequence has been recently published. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the proteins encoded by these genes are homologues of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunits (PKAc). Southern blot analysis indicated that the EiPKAc gene is present in two copies in the E. intestinalis genome, whereas the E. cuniculi orthologue (EcPKAc) is a single copy gene. RT-PCR data showed that the EiPKAc gene is expressed in at least one of the intracellular stages during infection of the mammalian host cell by E. intestinalis.     

Diacylglycerol levels modulate the cellular distribution of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

Diacylglycerol (DAG), a second messenger involved in different cell signaling cascades, activates protein kinase C (PKC) and D (PKD), among other kinases. The present work analyzes the effects resulting from the alteration of DAG levels on neuronal and muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) distribution. We employ CHO-K1/A5 cells, expressing adult muscle-type AChR in a stable manner, and hippocampal neurons, which endogenously express various subtypes of neuronal AChR. CHO-K1/A5 cells treated with dioctanoylglycerol (DOG) for different periods showed augmented AChR cell surface levels at short incubation times (30 min–4 h) whereas at longer times (18 h) the AChR was shifted to intracellular compartments. Similarly, in cultured hippocampal neurons surface AChR levels increased as a result of DOG incubation for 4 h. Inhibition of endogenous DAG catabolism produced changes in AChR distribution similar to those induced by DOG treatment. Specific enzyme inhibitors and Western blot assays revealed that DAGs exert their effect on AChR distribution through the modulation of the activity of classical PKC (cPKC), novel PKC (nPKC) and PKD activity.     

Enzyme assay for protein kinase using micellar electrokinetic chromatography with laser-induced fluorescence detection

Micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) with laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detection has been developed for a protein kinase assay. This protein kinase assay could readily determine the phosphorylation activity of substrate peptide kemptide using cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) as a model enzyme. Kemptide and phosphorylated kemptide could be reacted with 7-fluoro-4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole (NBD-F) as a fluorescence derivatization reagent for LIF detection by directly adding NBD-F into the PKA enzymatic reaction mixture. These derivatives of substrate and product were separated and detected within the analysis time of 5 min by micellar electrokinetic mode using a mixture of sodium dodecylsulfate and methanol as a running buffer. Good linearity of the peak response of the phosphorylated kemptide was obtained over the range of 1-20 mU/tube of PKA in the assay. The relative standard deviation of the peak areas of the phosphorylated kemptide using 2, 5 and 10 mU/tube of PKA were calculated to <10.4%, indicating that the assay was reproducible. Also, IC(50) values of six PKA inhibitors, the K(i) value and the inhibition pattern of one inhibitor, which were calculated to estimate by the variation of the peak area of the phosphorylated kemptide using 5 mU/tube of PKA, were consistent with the published data. The sensitivity of the assay was higher than that of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for PKA phosphorylation activity, as IC(50) values, K(i) value, and the inhibition mechanism of inhibitors could be estimated using one-tenth amounts of PKA, compared with that of ELISA. The MEKC-LIF is expected to be very useful for protein kinase assay and its application to the estimation of inhibitors because this method does not entail experimentally troublesome procedures such as the preparation of antibody or fluorescence-labeled substrate.     

Protein kinases and protein phosphatases in prokaryotes: a genomic perspective

For many years, the regulation of protein structure and function by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation was considered a relatively recent invention that arose independently in each phylogenetic domain. Over time, however, incidents of apparent domain trespass involving the presence of 'eukaryotic' protein kinases or protein phosphatases in prokaryotic organisms were reported with increasing frequency. Today, genomics has provided the means to examine the phylogenetic distribution of 'eukaryotic' protein kinases and protein phosphatases in a comprehensive and systematic manner. The results of these genome searches challenge previous conceptions concerning the origins and evolution of this versatile regulatory mechanism.     

The C-terminal tail of protein kinase D2 and protein kinase D3 regulates their intracellular distribution

We generated a set of GFP-tagged chimeras between protein kinase D2 (PKD2) and protein kinase D3 (PKD3) to examine in live cells the contribution of their C-terminal region to their intracellular localization. We found that the catalytic domain of PKD2 and PKD3 can localize to the nucleus when expressed without other kinase domains. However, when the C-terminal tail of PKD2 was added to its catalytic domain, the nuclear localization of the resulting protein was inhibited. In contrast, the nuclear localization of the CD of PKD3 was not inhibited by its C-terminal tail. Furthermore, the exchange of the C-terminal tail of PKD2 and PKD3 in the full-length proteins was sufficient to exchange their intracellular localization. Collectively, these data demonstrate that the short C-terminal tail of these kinases plays a critical role in determining their cytoplasmic/nuclear localization.