谷氨酸转运体能引发突触前离子流

谷氨酸转运体的功能是在递质出胞释放后清除突触间隙的递质 ,但转运体也携带离子。已证实在突触后膜和胶质细胞 ,转运体的激活可导致离子流的产生。某些谷氨酸转运体也存在于突触前终末 ,它们的活动可能影响突触前膜的电位 ,从而调节递质释放。但是 ,突触前终末的体积极小 ,在这些部位记录转运体介导的电流是一件较难的事情。最近 ,Palmer等通过记录两种大型的突触前终末 ,证实了谷氨酸转运体的确能引发突触前离子流。研究者记录了金鱼视网膜双极细胞的大型终末 ,发现突触前离子流与谷氨酸的释放相伴发生 ,这一离子流有较大的电导系数 ,且…     

神经递质转运体

神经递质转运体(neurotransmitter transporters)或称神经转运体(neurotransporters)存在于神经末梢的细胞膜上,其作用是通过重摄取已释放的递质使其作用终止。这些转运体是突触的关键成份之一,并是许多药物(如抗抑郁药物和抗精神病药物)的作用位点。转运体     

神经递质释放的分子机制

大脑中的神经细胞主要依赖神经突触进行细胞间信息传递。神经递质从突触前释放到突触间隙中,将电信号转换为化学信号。释放的递质与突触后的相应受体结合,引起受体通道的打开再将化学信号转换为突触后电信号。到目前为止,对SNARE复合体介导的钙离子触发的神经递质释放分子机制已经有了深入理解,囊泡融合的基本模型也得到了广泛认可,但仍有问题没有解决。该文对近年来与神经递质释放分子机制相关的研究作一综述,以期为递质释放过程中重要分子的深入解析提供理论依据。     

突触前受体对递质释放的调节作用

神经信息传递的速度或效应器细胞反应的强度,取决于神经递质的释放量和突触后膜(或效应器细胞膜)上受体的性质与数量。而神经递质的释放量除取决于刺激的频率与强度外,还受突触前膜上各种受体活动的影响。本文介绍各种突触前受体对递质释放的调节作用,并对其作用机制进行分析。有的递质对自身的释放起正反馈与负反馈调节作用,去甲肾上腺素(NA)属于此类型。NA还可通过作用于突触后膜合成前列腺素,后者对NA的释放起负反馈调节作用。另一些物质通过作用于突触前受体,使递质的释放增强或减弱,例如血管紧张素Ⅱ与腺苷属于这一类。这种突触前受体对递质释放的调节作用,除具有重要的生理学与药理学意义外,还具有重要的临床意义。     

突触传递的新发现

在神经冲动传递中 ,突触前神经元兴奋后引起末梢钙内流 ,从而释放神经递质 ,钙内流到递质释放只须 2 0 0毫秒 ,意味着钙通道与释放神经递质的装置非常接近 ,甚至是相连的。而且突触前和突触后是密切合作的 ,这才能让神经递质精确地释放到突触后膜的受体部位。这种密切合作与粘附分子有关 ,它们是一些特定的位于突触前后膜之间的细胞表面蛋白 ,在突触间隙紧密相连 ,从而将突触前后装置联系在一起。Neurexin是与突触形成粘附的一个相关蛋白家族 ,在结构上它们有长的细胞外区域和短的细胞内尾部。它们的分子具有多样性特点 ,有三个基因编码 ,…     

神经递质释放过程中的可溶性NSF附着蛋白受体(SNARE)和相关蛋白

近年来,对突触小泡释放神经递质分子机制的研究迅速发展,发现了大量位于神经末梢的蛋白质.它们之间的相互作用与突触小泡释放神经递质相关,特别是位于突触小泡膜上的突触小泡蛋白/突触小泡相关膜蛋白(synaptobrevin/VAMP),位于突触前膜上的syntaxin和突触小体相关蛋白(synaptosome-associated protein of 25 ku),三者聚合形成的可溶性NSF附着蛋白受体(SNARE)核心复合体在突触小泡的胞裂外排、释放递质过程中有重要作用.而一些已知及未知的与SNARE蛋白有相互作用的蛋白质,可通过调节SNARE核心复合体的形成与解离来影响突触小泡的胞裂外排,从而可以调节突触信号传递的效率及强度,在突触可塑性的形成中起重要作用.     

谷氨酸是哺乳动物中枢的一种神经递质

哺乳动物中枢存在高亲和摄取谷氨酸(Glu)和门冬氨酸(Asp)系统。Glu 突触前定位于特异的神经元,生理性刺激能使 Glu 从突触前膜释出,作用于酸性氨基酸的受体,引起突触后的反应,而且具有迅速终止递质作用的机制。外源性给予 Glu 及其摹拟剂,能产生与内源性 Glu 相同的效应,同样可被受体拮抗剂阻断。Glu 具备神经递质必需的条件,是哺乳动物中枢的兴奋性递质。     

神经递质释放机制的实验研究-即发态突触小泡假说

突触小泡（ＳｙｎａｐｔｉｃＶｅｓｉｃｌｅ）在神经递质释放过程中起关键性作用。采用膜片钳技术对突触前后细胞同步钳位研究了爪蟾胚胎神经元突触递质释放的过程,提出了如下小泡释放的假说：锚定在突触前膜的小泡中包含两类小泡：锚定态小泡和即发态小泡（即发态小泡定义为钙离子依赖性即时释放的小泡）。后者在动作电位到达时立即释放,而处于锚定态的小泡只有转换为钙离子依赖性释放的即发态时才能进入递质释放程序     

突触小泡膜蛋白—SB蛋白的若干研究进展

synaptobrevin(简称SB蛋白)属于突触小泡胰蛋白家族(VAMPs),分子量为18—20KD,用枪乌贼进行实验,向神经末梢注射破伤风毒素TeTox和肉毒杆菌毒素BoTox,可裂解SB蛋白并不可逆地抑制神经递质的释 放,但不影响触发递质释放的突触前Ca~(2 )浓度。电镜观察表明,注射TeTox的神经末梢,停靠(docking)和末停靠的突触小泡数目均增加。进一步研究证实SB蛋白的裂解引起递质释放量减少,但不影响小泡停靠。提示SB蛋白可能在突触小泡停靠与融合之间某一环节介导神经递质的释放。     

神经节突触传递的药理研究

电刺激节前纤维,在细胞内可依次记录到四种突触后电位:f-EPSP、s-IPSP、s-EPSP和L-s-EPSP。其中f-EPSP代表神经节传递的经典通路。节前神经末梢释放的ACh直接作用于突触后膜的N和M胆碱受体,分别产生f-EPSP和s-EPSP。s-IPSP的产生和调节机制,说法不一,本文对此作了重点介绍。L-s-EPSP表示非胆碱能突触传递,其递质可能为促黄体释放激素或P物质。本文还简要介绍了与神经节突触传递有关的其它神经递质或调制物。     

Lipid regulation of the synaptic vesicle cycle

Membrane vesicle cycling is orchestrated through the combined actions of proteins and lipids. At neuronal synapses, this orchestration must meet the stringent demands of speed, fidelity and sustainability of the synaptic vesicle cycle that mediates neurotransmission. Historically, the lion's share of the attention has been focused on the proteins that are involved in this cycle; but, in recent years, it has become clear that the previously unheralded plasma membrane and vesicle lipids are also key regulators of this cycle. This article reviews recent insights into the roles of lipid-modifying enzymes and lipids in the acute modulation of neurotransmission.     

Expression of a chloroplast ATP/ADP transporter in E. coli membranes: behind the Mistic strategy

Eukaryotic membrane protein expression is still a major bottleneck for structural studies. Production in E. coli often leads to low expression level and/or aggregated proteins. In the last decade, strategies relying on new fusion protein expression revealed promising results. Fusion with the amphipatic Mistic protein has been described to favor expression in E. coli membranes. Although, this approach has already been reported for a few membrane proteins, little is known about the activity of the fused proteins. We used this strategy and obtained high expression levels of a chloroplast ATP/ADP transporter from A. thaliana (NTT1) and characterized its transport properties. NTT1 fused to Mistic has a very low transport activity which can be recovered after in vivo Mistic fusion cleavage. Moreover, detailed molecular characterization of purified NTT1 mature form, NTT1 fused to Mistic or NTT1 cleaved-off from this fusion highlights the correct fold of the latter one. Therefore, considering the higher quantity of purified NTT1 mature form obtained via the Mistic fusion approach, this is a valuable strategy for obtaining quantities of pure and active proteins that are adequate for structural studies.     

Cellular mechanisms underlying stimulus-dependent gain modulation in primary visual cortex neurons in vivo

Gain modulation is a widespread neuronal phenomenon that modifies response amplitude without changing selectivity. Computational and in vitro studies have proposed cellular mechanisms of gain modulation based on the postsynaptic effects of background synaptic activation, but these mechanisms have not been studied in vivo. Here, we used intracellular recordings from cat primary visual cortex to measure neuronal gain while changing background synaptic activity with visual stimulation. We found that increases in the membrane fluctuations associated with increases in synaptic input do not obligatorily result in gain modulation in vivo. However, visual stimuli that evoked sustained changes in resting membrane potential, input resistance, and membrane fluctuations robustly modulated neuronal gain. The magnitude of gain modulation depended critically on the spatiotemporal properties of the visual stimulus. Gain modulation in vivo may thus be determined on a moment-to-moment basis by sensory context and the consequent dynamics of synaptic activation.     

AMPA receptor trafficking pathways and links to dendritic spine morphogenesis

Alterations in synaptic strength are proposed to underlie learning and memory, and two major mechanisms utilised by neurons to bring about such changes involve regulating the number of AMPARs found at the synaptic plasma membrane, and altering the size and/or shape of the specialised postsynaptic compartment, the dendritic spine. It is now well-established that control of receptor number is brought about by precise modulation of vesicle trafficking, although the details of this crucial process are still far from clear. Regulation of spine size involves dynamic alterations in the spine actin cytoskeleton, but recent studies suggest that trafficking events may also play a role. In this review, I will summarise some recent findings about AMPAR trafficking pathways, and highlight the idea that membrane trafficking events not only regulate the complement of AMPARs at the synaptic plasma membrane, but also contribute to spine morphogenesis, either by regulating the plasma membrane content of spines, or as a result of changes in AMPAR trafficking.     

Modulation of hippocampal plasticity in learning and memory

Synaptic plasticity plays a central role in the study of neural mechanisms of learning and memory. Plasticity rules are not invariant over time but are under neuromodulatory control, enabling behavioral states to influence memory formation. Neuromodulation controls synaptic plasticity at network level by directing information flow, at circuit level through changes in excitation/inhibition balance, and at synaptic level through modulation of intracellular signaling cascades. Although most research has focused on modulation of principal neurons, recent progress has uncovered important roles for interneurons in not only routing information, but also setting conditions for synaptic plasticity. Moreover, astrocytes have been shown to both gate and mediate plasticity. These additional mechanisms must be considered for a comprehensive mechanistic understanding of learning and memory.     

Calcium-Dependent Desensitization of NMDA Receptors

Glutamate receptors play the key role in excitatory synaptic transmission in the central nervous system (CNS). N-methyl-D-aspartate-activated glutamate receptors (NMDARs) are ion channels permeable to sodium, potassium, and calcium ions that localize to the pre- and postsynaptic membranes, as well as extrasynaptic neuronal membrane. Calcium entry into dendritic spines is essential for long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) of synaptic transmission. Both LTP and LTD represent morphological and functional changes occurring in the process of memory formation. NMDAR dysfunction is associated with epilepsy, schizophrenia, migraine, dementia, and neurodegenerative diseases. Prolonged activation of extrasynaptic NMDARs causes calcium overload and apoptosis of neurons. Here, we review recent findings on the molecular mechanisms of calcium-dependent NMDAR desensitization that ensures fast modulation of NMDAR conductance in the CNS and limits calcium entry into the cells under pathological conditions. We present the data on molecular determinants related to calcium-dependent NMDAR desensitization and functional interaction of NMDARs with other ion channels and transporters. We also describe association of NMDARs with lipid membrane microdomains.     

Regulation of AMPA Receptors by Phosphorylation

The AMPA receptors for glutamate are oligomeric structures that mediate fast excitatory responses in the central nervous system. Phosphorylation of AMPA receptors is an important mechanism for short-term modulation of their function, and is thought to play an important role in synaptic plasticity in different brain regions. Recent studies have shown that phosphorylation of AMPA receptors by cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and Ca2+- and calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) potentiates their activity, but phosphorylation of the receptor subunits may also affect their interaction with intracellular proteins, and their expression at the plasma membrane. Phosphorylation of AMPA receptor subunits has also been investigated in relation to processes of synaptic plasticity. This review focuses on recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms of regulation of AMPA receptors, and their implications in synaptic plasticity.     

Enlightening energy parasitism by analysis of an ATP/ADP transporter from chlamydiae

Energy parasitism by ATP/ADP transport proteins is an essential, common feature of intracellular bacteria such as chlamydiae and rickettsiae, which are major pathogens of humans. Although several ATP/ADP transport proteins have so far been characterized, some fundamental questions regarding their function remained unaddressed. In this study, we focused on the detailed biochemical analysis of a representative ATP/ADP transporter (PamNTT1), from the amoeba symbiont Protochlamydia amoebophila (UWE25) to further clarify the principle of energy exploitation. We succeeded in the purification of the first bacterial nucleotide transporter (NTT) and its functional reconstitution into artificial lipid vesicles. Reconstituted PamNTT1 revealed high import velocities for ATP and an unexpected and previously unobserved stimulating effect of the luminal ADP on nucleotide import affinities. Latter preference of the nucleotide hetero-exchange is independent of the membrane potential, and therefore, PamNTT1 not only structurally but also functionally differs from the well-characterized mitochondrial ADP/ATP carriers. Reconstituted PamNTT1 exhibits a bidirectional orientation in lipid vesicles, but interestingly, only carriers inserted with the N-terminus directed to the proteoliposomal interior are functional. The data presented here comprehensively explain the functional basis of how the intracellular P. amoebophila manages to exploit the energy pool of its host cell effectively by using the nucleotide transporter PamNTT1. This membrane protein mediates a preferred import of ATP, which is additionally stimulated by a high internal (bacterial) ADP/ATP ratio, and the orientation-dependent functionality of the transporter ensures that it is not working in a mode that is detrimental to P. amoebophila. Heterologous expression and purification of high amounts of PamNTT1 provides the basis for its crystallization and detailed structure/function analyses. Furthermore, functional reconstitution of this essential chlamydial protein paves the way for high-throughput uptake studies in order to screen for specific inhibitors potentially suitable as anti-chlamydial drugs.     

Molecules involved in the formation of synaptic connections in muscle and brain.

Synapses are highly specialized structures designed to guarantee precise and efficient communication between neurons and their target cells. Molecules of the extracellular matrix have an instructive role in the formation of the neuromuscular junction, the best-characterized synapse. In this review, the molecular mechanisms underlying these instructive signals will be discussed with particular emphasis on the receptors involved. Additionally, recent evidence for the involvement of specific adhesion complexes in the formation and modulation of synapses in the central nervous system will be reviewed. Synapses are specialized junctions between neurons and their target cells where information is transferred from the pre- to the postsynaptic cell. At most vertebrate synapses, this transfer is accomplished by the release of a specific neurotransmitter from the presynaptic nerve terminal. The release of neurotransmitter is initiated by the action potential and the subsequent influx of Ca(2+) into the presynaptic nerve terminal. This results in the rapid fusion of vesicles with the nerve membrane and the release of the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter then diffuses across the cleft and binds to specific postsynaptic receptors, resulting in a change in the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell. This can result in the generation of an action potential. The high precision of synaptic transmission requires that pre- and postsynaptic structures are both highly organized and in juxtaposition to each other. In addition, alterations in synaptic transmission are the basis of learning and memory and are likely to be accompanied by the remodeling of synaptic structures (Toni et al., 1999). Thus, the study of how synapses are formed during development is also of relevance for the understanding of the cellular and molecular processes involved in learning and memory. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms involved in the formation and the function of synapses.