Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: a new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature

Trotter and Gleser's (Trotter and Gleser: Am J Phys Anthropol 10 (1952) 469-514; Trotter and Gleser: Am J Phys Anthropol 16 (1958) 79-123) long bone formulae for US Blacks or derivations thereof (Robins and Shute: Hum Evol 1 (1986) 313-324) have been previously used to estimate the stature of ancient Egyptians. However, limb length to stature proportions differ between human populations; consequently, the most accurate mathematical stature estimates will be obtained when the population being examined is as similar as possible in proportions to the population used to create the equations. The purpose of this study was to create new stature regression formulae based on direct reconstructions of stature in ancient Egyptians and assess their accuracy in comparison to other stature estimation methods. We also compare Egyptian body proportions to those of modern American Blacks and Whites. Living stature estimates were derived using a revised Fully anatomical method (Raxter et al.: Am J Phys Anthropol 130 (2006) 374-384). Long bone stature regression equations were then derived for each sex. Our results confirm that, although ancient Egyptians are closer in body proportion to modern American Blacks than they are to American Whites, proportions in Blacks and Egyptians are not identical. The newly generated Egyptian-based stature regression formulae have standard errors of estimate of 1.9-4.2 cm. All mean directional differences are less than 0.4% compared to anatomically estimated stature, while results using previous formulae are more variable, with mean directional biases varying between 0.2% and 1.1%, tibial and radial estimates being the most biased. There is no evidence for significant variation in proportions among temporal or social groupings; thus, the new formulae may be broadly applicable to ancient Egyptian remains.     

In vivo bone strain and bone functional adaptation

Mechanistic interpretations of bone cross-sectional shapes are based on the paradigm of shape optimization such that bone offers maximum mechanical resistance with a minimum of material. Recent in vivo strain studies (Demes et al., Am J Phys Anthropol 106 (1998) 87-100, Am J Phys Anthropol 116 (2001) 257-265; Lieberman et al., Am J Phys Anthropol 123 (2004) 156-171) have questioned these interpretations by demonstrating that long bones diaphyses are not necessarily bent in planes in which they offer maximum resistance to bending. Potential limitations of these in vivo studies have been pointed out by Ruff et al. (Am J Phys Anthropol 129 (2006) 484-498). It is demonstrated here that two loading scenarios, asymmetric bending and buckling, would indeed not lead to correct predictions of loads from strain. It is also shown that buckling is of limited relevance for many primate long bones. This challenges a widely held view that circular bone cross sections make loading directions unpredictable for bones which is based on a buckling load model. Asymmetric bending is a potentially confounding factor for bones with directional differences in principal area moments (I(max) > I(min)). Mathematical corrections are available and should be applied to determine the bending axis in such cases. It is concluded that loads can be reliably extrapolated from strains. More strain studies are needed to improve our understanding of the relationships between activities, bone loading regimes associated with them, and the cross-sectional geometry of bones.     

Stature in archeological samples from central Italy: methodological issues and diachronic changes

Stature reconstructions from skeletal remains are usually obtained through regression equations based on the relationship between height and limb bone length. Different equations have been employed to reconstruct stature in skeletal samples, but this is the first study to provide a systematic analysis of the reliability of the different methods for Italian historical samples. Aims of this article are: 1) to analyze the reliability of different regression methods to estimate stature for populations living in Central Italy from the Iron Age to Medieval times; 2) to search for trends in stature over this time period by applying the most reliable regression method. Long bone measurements were collected from 1,021 individuals (560 males, 461 females), from 66 archeological sites for males and 54 for females. Three time periods were identified: Iron Age, Roman period, and Medieval period. To determine the most appropriate equation to reconstruct stature the Delta parameter of Gini (Memorie di metodologia statistica. Milano: Giuffre A. 1939), in which stature estimates derived from different limb bones are compared, was employed. The equations proposed by Pearson (Philos Trans R Soc London 192 (1899) 169-244) and Trotter and Gleser for Afro-Americans (Am J Phys Anthropol 10 (1952) 463-514; Am J Phys Anthropol 47 (1977) 355-356) provided the most consistent estimates when applied to our sample. We then used the equation by Pearson for further analyses. Results indicate a reduction in stature in the transition from the Iron Age to the Roman period, and a subsequent increase in the transition from the Roman period to the Medieval period. Changes of limb lengths over time were more pronounced in the distal than in the proximal elements in both limbs.     

Morphology of the pubis and preauricular area in relation to parity and age at death in Macaca mulatta

Some adult human females show bone resorption (pitting) at the dorsal aspect of the pubis and preauricular area of the ilium. The etiology of pelvic bone resorption is attributed alternatively to reproduction and to pelvic anatomy. While most researchers infer that pelvic pitting is related to reproduction, only a few studies are based on women of known parity. Degree of pubic resorption is directly associated with both parity (Suchey et al.: Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 51:517-539, 1979; Bergfelder and Hermann: J. Hum. Evol. 9:611-613, 1980) and age (Suchey et al.: Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 51:517-539, 1979). The relationship between parity and degree of resorption of the preauricular area is equivocal, found to be significant by Dunlap (A Study of the Preauricular Sulcus in a Cadaver Population, Ph.D. dissertation, East Lansing, Michigan State University, 1981) but not by Spring et al. (Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 79:247-252, 1989); both studies report that age is not associated with resorption of the preauricular area. Other mammals evidence public resorption, but the morphology of the preauricular area is less well known. This study addresses the issue on the etiology of pelvic bone resorption using a sample of Macaca mulatta (the free-ranging population from Cayo Santiago) for which parity and age at death are known for all specimens. The following results are reported. Resorption of the pubis is common among females but infrequent among males. Contrary to Rawlins (Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 42:477-488, 1975), the degree of pubic resorption in female macaques is significantly related to both parity and age at death.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Application of the anatomical method to estimate the maximum adult stature and the age‐at‐death stature

This study focuses on the age adjustment of statures estimated with the anatomical method. The research material includes 127 individuals from the Terry Collection. The cadaveric stature (CSTA)–skeletal height (SKH) ratios indicate that stature loss with age commences before SKH reduction. Testing three equations to estimate CSTA at the age at death and CSTA corrected to maximum stature from SKH indicates that the age correction of stature should reflect the pattern of age‐related stature loss to minimize estimation error. An equation that includes a continuous and linear age correction through the entire adult age range [Eq. (1)] results in curvilinear stature estimation error. This curvilinear stature estimation error can be largely avoided by applying a second linear equation [Eq. (2)] to only individuals older than 40 years. Our third equation [Eq. (3)], based on younger individuals who have not lost stature, can be used to estimate maximum stature. This equation can also be applied to individuals of unknown or highly uncertain age, because it provides reasonably accurate estimates until about 60/70 years at least for males. Am J Phys Anthropol 152:96–106, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Energy expenditure of bipedal walking is higher than that of quadrupedal walking in Japanese macaques

The authors previously compared energetic costs of bipedal and quadrupedal walking in bipedally trained macaques used for traditional Japanese monkey performances (Nakatsukasa et al. 2004 Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 124:248-256). These macaques used inverted pendulum mechanics during bipedal walking, which resulted in an efficient exchange of potential and kinetic energy. Nonetheless, energy expenditure during bipedal walking was significantly higher than that of quadrupedal walking. In Nakatsukasa et al. (2004 Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 124:248-256), locomotor costs were measured before subjects reached a steady state due to technical limitations. The present investigation reports sequential changes of energy consumption during 15 min of walking in two trained macaques, using carbon dioxide production as a proxy of energy consumption, as in Nakatsukasa et al. (2004 Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 124:248-256). Although a limited number of sessions were conducted, carbon dioxide production was consistently greater during bipedal walking, with the exception of some irregularity during the first minute. Carbon dioxide production gradually decreased after 1 min, and both subjects reached a steady state within 10 min. Energy expenditure during bipedalism relative to quadrupedalism differed between the two subjects. It was considerably higher (140% of the quadrupedal walking cost) in one subject who walked with more bent-knee, bent-hip gaits. This high cost strongly suggests that ordinary macaques, who adopt further bent-knee, bent-hip gaits, consume a far greater magnitude of energy during bipedal walking.     

Is the genetic structure of Gran Chaco populations unique? Interregional perspectives on native South American mitochondrial DNA variation

This study reevaluates the hypothesis in Demarchi et al. (2001 Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 115:199-203) that Gran Chaco peoples demonstrate a unique pattern of genetic diversity due to a distinct regional population history. Specifically, they found populations in the central part of the Gran Chaco, or Central Chaco, to have higher within- and lower between-population mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup frequency variation compared to populations in other South American regions. To test this hypothesis of regional uniqueness, we applied analytical and simulation methods to mtDNA first hypervariable (HVI) region sequence data from a broad set of comparative South and Central American population samples. Contrary to the results of Demarchi et al. (2001 Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 115:199-203), we found that the Gran Chaco's regional within-population diversity is about average among regions, and populations are highly differentiated from each other. When we limited the scale of analysis to the Central Chaco, a more localized subregion of the Gran Chaco, our results fell more in line with the original findings of Demarchi et al. (2001 Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 115:199-203). Still, we conclude that neither the Gran Chaco regional pattern, nor the Central Chaco subregional pattern, is unique within South America. Nonetheless, the Central Chaco pattern accords well with the area's history, including pre-European contact lifeways and the documented historical use of the area as an interregional crossroads. However, we cannot exclude post-European contact disruption of traditional mating networks as an equally plausible explanation for the observed diversity pattern. Finally, these results additionally inform broader models of South American genetic diversity. While other researchers proposed an east-west continental division in patterns of genetic variation (e.g., Fuselli et al. 2003 Mol. Biol. Evol. 20:1682-1691), we found that in the geographically intermediate Central Chaco, a strict east-west divide in genetic variation breaks down. We suggest that future genetic characterizations of the continent, and subsequent interpretations of evolutionary history, involve a broad regional sampling of South American populations.     

Calcaneal measurement in estimation of stature of South African blacks

Stature (height) is an important factor in establishing the identity of a person in the living as well as in the skeletonized state. When stature is estimated from the bones of the limbs, regression equations, which estimate the ratios of the lengths of bones to the height of the individual, are generated. The majority of bones that were used previously were the long bones. The calcaneus was used for estimating stature only in American whites and blacks (Holland [1995] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 96:315-320). The regression equations that he generated were found to be useful for stature estimation in these population groups. Since the calcaneus has not been used for the same purpose in South Africa, the aim of this study was to derive regression equations that will allow this bone to be used for stature estimation in South African blacks. In total, 116 complete skeletons (60 males and 56 females) were selected from the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons, School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand (Johannesburg, South Africa). The skeletal heights of these sets of skeletons were calculated using the anatomical method of Fully ([1956] Ann. Med. Leg. 35:266-273). Nine parameters of the calcaneus were measured and matched against skeletal heights, using univariate and multivariate regression methods. Regression equations were obtained for estimation of the stature of the South African black population from the calcaneus. The standard error of estimate that was obtained with univariate regression analysis was higher than the corresponding values using multivariate regression analysis. In both cases, the standard errors of estimate compared well with the values obtained for fragmentary long bones by previous authors.     

Brief communication: How much larger is the relative volume of area 10 of the prefrontal cortex in humans?

It has long been thought that the prefrontal cerebral cortex has been greatly expanded in the human brain. Semendeferi et al. ([2001] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 114:224-241) showed that Brodmann's area 10 is relatively larger in the human compared to pongid brains. The question is: how much larger relatively is it? Using their data, it can be shown that the relative increase for human prefrontal area 10 is only 6% larger. Looking at the data base of neural structures provided by Stephan et al. ([1981] Folia Primatol. (Basel) 35:1-29), it is apparent that 6% is a relatively low residual value from a predicted value based on allometric considerations between total brain weight and any given neural structure. When this small increase is combined with their earlier findings on area 13 of prefrontal cortex (Semendeferi et al. [1997] J. Hum. Evol. 32:375-388), it appears that the prefrontal cortex in humans is not some 200% larger as claimed by some researchers (Deacon [1997] Symbolic Species, New York: W.W. Norton; cf. Holloway [1998] Am Sci 86:184-186), and that the findings of Semendeferi et al. ([2001] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 114:224-241) are in agreement with the earlier work (Semendeferi and Damasio [2000] J. Hum. Evol. 38:317-332; Semendeferi et al. [1997] J. Hum. Evol. 32:375-388), showing that the human frontal lobe volume is what would be expected for a primate of its brain size. While the prefrontal cortex may have increased relatively in Homo sapiens, the increase is likely to have been far less than currently believed.     

Exploring artificial cranial deformation using elliptic Fourier analysis of Procrustes aligned outlines

The anatomical effects of artificial cranial deformation on the face and the base have been subject to various metric approaches, including standard linear as well as finite element techniques, and have produced controversial results (Antón [1989] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 79:253-267; Kohn et al. [1993] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 90:147-158). It can be argued that diverging observations partly result from methodological constraints. The present study compares samples of intentionally deformed and undeformed human crania, using elliptic Fourier analysis (EFA), a morphometric approach which has been shown to be particularly appropriate for characterizing the shape of two-dimensional outlines and associated shape changes. We improve the standard EFA approach by adding a preliminary orientation of the outlines following the rotation parameters of a Procrustes superimposition, using multiple homologous landmarks called control points. The results confirm that circumferentially deformed skulls exhibit modifications of the basioccipital region, together with increased anterior and inferior facial projection. However, the degree to which basioccipital flattening is modified in circumferentially deformed Peruvians was found to be less marked than changes observed in the face. Some of the modifications observed here can be related to morphological trends existing in the population from which our sample was taken. The observation of other modifications may be subject to methodological constraints of standard morphometric approaches.     

Differential skeletal preservation at Windover Pond: causes and consequences

In this paper, we evaluate the causes of differential skeletal preservation in the Windover Pond skeletal series (8BR246). We collected data on sex and age for approximately 110 individuals, and calculated a preservation score for each individual based on the presence of 80 skeletal landmarks. Our research questions evaluated the relationship between bone preservation and individual age and sex, and between the presence of preserved brain material and skeletal preservation, and the effects of burial location on bone preservation. The results indicate variability in average preservation for the sample (micro = 0.53, SD = 0.22) with an apparent lack of sex-specific (P = 0.79) or age-specific (P = 0.37) differences in preservation. The relationship between brain and skeletal preservation (P = 0.15) was not significant. The horizontal distribution of burials was not significantly correlated with skeletal preservation (north: r = -0.10, P = 0.93; east: r = 0.09, P = 0.45); however, vertical depth was a significant predictor of preservation (r = -0.31, P = 0.005), indicating that skeletal preservation decreased as burials were located closer to the ground surface. The observed variability in preservation scores may be related to the partial drying and resubmergence of the uppermost burials for the last few millennia. Comparison of Windover element-specific survival rates with previous analyses based on terrestrial samples (Galloway et al. [1997] Forensic taphonomy, Boca Raton: CRC Press; Waldron [1987] Death, decay and reconstruction, Manchester: Manchester University Press; Willey et al. [1997] Am J Phys Anthropol 104:513-528) affirms the relationship between element weight or density and bone survival. The unique taphonomic context of our study sample effected little change in bone deterioration processes.     

A quantitative and qualitative reanalysis of the endocast from the juvenile Paranthropus specimen l338y-6 from Omo, Ethiopia

Based on an analysis of its endocast, Holloway (1981 Am J Phys Anthropol 53:109-118) attributed the juvenile Omo L338y-6 specimen to Australopithecus africanus (i.e., gracile australopithecines) rather than to Paranthropus (Australopithecus) boisei (robust australopithecines) favored by other workers (Rak and Howell [1978] Am J Phys Anthropol 48:345-366). Holloway's attribution was based on the specimen's (1) low cranial capacity, (2) gracile-like meningeal vessels, (3) gracile-like cerebellar hemispheres, and (4) absence of an enlarged occipital/marginal (O/M) sinus system. Recent work, however, has shown that criteria 1 and 2 are not useful for sorting gracile from robust australopithecines (Culotta [1999] Science 284:1109-1111; Falk [1993] Am J Phys Anthropol 92:81-98). In this paper, we test criterion 3 by quantifying the endocranial cerebellar and occipital morphology reproduced on the Omo L338y-6 endocast, and comparing it to seven endocasts from South and East African early hominids. Our preliminary results show that metric analysis of this specimen cannot be used to sort it preferentially with either robust or gracile australopithecines. Finally, we demonstrate that, contrary to previous reports, the Omo L338y-6 endocast reproduces an enlarged left occipital sinus (criterion 4). This observation is consistent with the original attribution of the Omo specimen to robust australopithecines (Rak and Howell [1978] Am J Phys Anthropol 48:345-366). Furthermore, if Omo L338y-6 was a robust australopithecine, this discovery extends the occurrence of an enlarged O/M sinus system to one of the earliest known paranthropines. Am J Phys Anthropol 110:399-406, 1999.     

Body size estimation of small‐bodied humans: Applicability of current methods

Body size (stature and mass) estimates are integral to understanding the lifeways of past populations.Body size estimation of an archaeological skeletal sample can be problematic when the body size or proportions of the population are distinctive. One such population is that of the Holocene Later Stone Age (LSA) of southern Africa, in which small stature (mean femoral length = 407 mm, n = 52) and narrow pelves (mean bi‐iliac breadth = 210 mm, n = 50) produce a distinctive adult body size/shape, making it difficult to identify appropriate body size estimation methods. Material culture, morphology, and culture history link the Later Stone Age people with the descendant population collectively known as the Khoe‐San. Stature estimates based on skeletal “anatomical” linear measures (the Fully method) and on long bone length are compared, along with body mass estimates derived from “morphometric” (bi‐iliac breath/stature) and “biomechanical” (femoral head diameter) methods, in a LSA adult skeletal sample (n = 52) from the from coastal and near‐coastal regions of South Africa. Indices of sexual dimorphism (ISD) for each method are compared with data from living populations. Fully anatomical stature is most congruent with Olivier's femur + tibia method, although both produce low ISD. McHenry's femoral head body mass formula produces estimates most consistent with the bi‐iliac breadth/staturemethod for the females, although the males display higher degrees of disagreement among methods. These results highlight the need for formulae derived from reference samples from a wider range of body sizes to improve the reliability of existing methods. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The influence of body size on adult skeletal age estimation methods

Accurate age estimations are essential to archaeological and forensic analyses. However, reliability for adult skeletal age estimations is poor, especially for individuals over the age of 40 years. This is the first study to show that body size influences skeletal age estimation. The ??can et al., Lovejoy et al., Buckberry and Chamberlain, and Suchey‐Brooks age methods were tested on 764 adult skeletons from the Hamann‐Todd and William Bass Collections. Statures ranged from 1.30 to 1.93 m and body masses ranged from 24.0 to 99.8 kg. Transition analysis was used to evaluate the differences in the age estimations. For all four methods, the smallest individuals have the lowest ages at transition and the largest individuals have the highest ages at transition. Short and light individuals are consistently underaged, while tall and heavy individuals are consistently overaged. When femoral length and femoral head diameter are compared with the log‐age model, results show the same trend as the known stature and body mass measurements. The skeletal remains of underweight individuals have fewer age markers while those of obese individuals have increased surface degeneration and osteophytic lipping. Tissue type and mechanical loading have been shown to affect bone turnover rates, and may explain the differing patterns of skeletal aging. From an archaeological perspective, the underaging of light, short individuals suggests the need to revisit the current research consensus on the young mortality rates of past populations. From a forensic perspective, understanding the influence of body size will impact efforts to identify victims of mass disasters, genocides, and homicides. Am J Phys Anthropol 156:35–57, 2015 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Stature in Holocene foragers of North India

The Ganga Plain of North India provides an archaeological and skeletal record of semi‐nomadic Holocene foragers in association with an aceramic Mesolithic culture. Prior estimates of stature for Mesolithic Lake Cultures (MLC) used inappropriate equations from an American White reference group and need revision. Attention is given to intralimb body proportions and geo‐climatic provenance of MLC series in considering the most suitable reference population. Regression equations from ancient Egyptians are used in reconstructing stature for MLC skeletal series from Damdama (DDM), Mahadaha (MDH), and Sarai Nahar Rai (SNR). Mean stature is estimated at between 174 (MDH) and 178 cm (DDM and SNR) for males, and between 163 cm (MDH) and 179 cm (SNR) for females. Stature estimates based on ancient Egyptian equations are significantly shorter (from 3.5 to 7.1 cm shorter in males; from 3.2 to 7.5 cm shorter in females) than estimates using the American White reference group. Revised stature estimates from tibia length and from femur + tibia more accurately estimate MLC stature for two reasons: a) these elements are highly correlated with stature and have lower standard estimates of error, and b) uncertainty regarding methods of measuring tibia length is avoided. When compared with Holocene samples of native Americans and Mesolithic Europeans, MLC series from North India are tall. This aspect of their biological variation confirms earlier assessments and results from the synergistic influence of balanced nutrition from broad‐spectrum foraging, body‐proportions adapted to a seasonally hot and arid climate, and the functional demands of a mobile, semi‐nomadic life‐style. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:408–416, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Fossil hominin ulnae and the forelimb of Paranthropus

The discovery of Pan in the Middle Pleistocene deposits of the Kapthurin Formation of the Tugen Hills (McBrearty and Jablonski: Nature 437 (2005) 105-108) inspires new interest in the search for other chimpanzee fossils in the East African Rift Valley. Craniodental evidence of an eastward excursion of chimpanzee populations in the Plio-Pleistocene goes undetected in other hominin sites, but one enigmatic postcranial fossil, the Olduvai Hominid 36 ulna, has many chimp-like features. Analyses by Aiello et al. (Aiello et al.: Am J Phys Anthropol 109 (1999) 89-110) reveal that it is similar to extant Pan in some respects, but it also has unique traits not seen in other hominoid species. They refer it to Paranthropus boisei. In this study, we reassess the affinities of OH 36 using a different data set that includes more recently discovered hominin fossils including those attributed to Paranthropus. Despite its superficial resemblance to modern Pan, our results agree with those of Aiello et al. (Aiello et al.: Am J Phys Anthropol 109 (1999) 89-110) that OH 36 is distinctly different from modern chimpanzees. By default, it is reasonable to assign this specimen to P. boisei, but it is not at all similar to other ulnae referred to this genus. Ulnae attributed to Paranthropus from South Africa, Kenya, and Ethiopia are morphologically more heterogeneous than those within species of large-bodied Hominoidea. Although there are many apparent shared derived traits justifying a monophyletic Paranthropus clade, most if not all of these traits are related to a single functional complex (hypermastication) that may have evolved in parallel and thereby constituting a paraphyletic group of species.     

Radiographic changes in the clavicle and proximal femur and their use in the determination of skeletal age at death

Visually seriated radiographs of the proximal femur, proximal humerus, clavicle, and calcaneus from 130 individuals from the Hamann-Todd collection were examined as indicators of skeletal age at death. The clavicle demonstrated the most consistent relationship to age in both sexes. The same radiographs were also seriated by size-normalized optical density as a means of establishing relative radiolucency. In this context, visual seriation proved superior. The four sites studied showed strong divergence in response to age. Since each was sampling bone response from the same individual, it is concluded that bone loss is highly site specific. This demonstrates the individual character of specific skeletal sites. Visual inspection of clavicular radiographs, seriated on a populational basis, provides age estimates that are comparable to anatomical age indicators and provides independent estimates of skeletal age when included in the summary age method (1985: Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 68:1–14).     

Femoral lengths and stature in Plio-Pleistocene hominids

This study reports the femoral lengths of 31 Plio-Pleistocene hominids dated between 3.1 and 0.7 million years ago, and uses those lengths to estimate stature by way of the femur-stature ratio reported by Feldesman et al. (Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 78:219-220, 1989). By this method the average female Australopithecus afarensis is 105 cm and the average male is 151 cm. The respective values are 115 and 138 cm for A. africanus. As defined by Howell (In VJ Maglio and HBS Cooke (eds): The Evolution of African Mammals. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978) and Johanson et al. (Kirtlandia 28:1-14, 1978), Homo habilis is a sexually dimorphic species, with females standing 118 cm and males 157 cm. Such apparently strong dimorphism may be due to the possibility that there are actually two species of nonrobust hominids between 2 and 1.7 m.y.a. The estimate for the female Australopithecus boisei is 124 cm and for the male, 137 cm, but these estimates are especially difficult to be certain of because there are no femora that can be positively identified as male A. boisei. Australopithecus robustus is estimated to be 110 cm (female) and 132 cm (male). African Homo erectus stood 160 cm (female) and 180 cm (male). From these estimates several generalizations are apparent. First, there is apparently strong sexual dimorphism in stature in A. afarensis and H. habilis, but less in the other species. Second, the "robust" australopithecines were relatively small statured. Third, it is apparently not true that humans have been getting progressively taller throughout their evolutionary history. Some individuals were as tall as modern humans 3 m.y.a., by 2 m.y.a. one individual stood about 173 cm, and by 1.7 m.y.a. a stature of 180+ cm was not uncommon.     

Asymmetry of the os pubis: Implications for the Suchey‐Brooks method

Studies of skeletal development frequently document populational incidences of bilateral asymmetry. Degenerative morphological skeletal changes, attributed to age related and irregular ossification, may also progress asymmetrically, either as the result of asymmetric biomechanical factors expressed over the lifespan, asymmetric expression of physiological processes, or progressive magnification of asymmetry acquired previously during development. This study illustrates the effects of bilateral asymmetry on age at death estimates obtained from human skeletal remains. The Suchey‐Brooks method, which uses the pubic symphyseal face for age estimation (Katz and Suchey, Am J Phys Anthropol 69 1986 427–435), was selected for the study based on its widespread use. Asymmetry in the Suchey‐Brooks symphyseal age phases was found in over 60% of a sample composed of 20th century White male individuals from 18 to 86 years of age (N = 130). However, results suggest that the presence of asymmetry does not compromise the accuracy of the Suchey‐Brooks method if the morphologically older symphyseal face of an asymmetric individual is used to estimate age at death. In addition, weak directional asymmetry and a correlation between age and asymmetry were found. This suggests that a comparison of asymmetry in this area with that in other skeletal areas, where the factors originating and influencing asymmetry are better understood, may be useful in better understanding the biological processes which underlie the age markers used in the Suchey‐Brooks method. Am J Phys Anthropol 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.