Review: the availability of life-cycle studies in Sweden

The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment - An online review was conducted on the availability of life-cycle assessment (LCA), water, and carbon footprinting studies in Sweden. The main...     

A generalized computational structure for regional life-cycle assessment

Purpose

Regional life-cycle assessment (LCA) is gaining an increasing attention among LCA scholars and practitioners. Here, we present a generalized computational structure for regional LCA, discuss in-depth the major challenges facing the field, and point to a direction in which we believe regional LCA should be headed.

Methods

Using an example, we first demonstrate that when there is regional heterogeneity (be it due to environmental conditions or technologies), average data would be inadequate for estimating the life-cycle impacts of a product produced in a specific region or even that of an average product produced in many regions. And when there is such regional heterogeneity, an understanding of how regions are connected through commodity flows is important to the accuracy of regional LCA estimates. Then, we present a generalized computational structure for regional LCA that takes into account interregional commodity flows, can evaluate various cases of regional differentiation, and can account for multiple impact categories simultaneously. In so doing, we show what kinds of data are required for this generalized framework of regional LCA.

Results and discussion

We discuss the major challenges facing regional LCA in terms of data requirements and computational complexity, and their implications for the choice of an optimal regional scale (i.e., the number of regions delineated within the geographic boundary studied).

Conclusions

We strongly recommend scholars from LCI and LCIA to work together and choose a spatial scale that not only adequately captures environmental characteristics but also allows inventory data to be reasonably compiled or estimated.

     

The influence of habitat availability and adult density on non-diadromous galaxiid fry settlement in New Zealand

This study investigated factors controlling settlement and initial density of two species, Galaxias vulgaris and Galaxias paucispondylus (Galaxiidae), in New Zealand streams. Factors affecting maximum fry abundance were assessed at 10 sites (eight streams) differing in habitat characteristics and the presence or absence of introduced brown Salmo trutta and rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss . Regression analysis indicated that conspecific adult numbers, extent of backwater habitat and brown and rainbow trout density were the most important factors determining initial fry density. Experimental additions of backwater habitat increased fry settlement tenfold compared with control reaches, demonstrating that the area available for fry settlement had a substantial effect on fry abundance. Results from this study indicate that fry settlement may be a critical limiting phase for some non-diadromous galaxiid populations. Increasing settlement area to enhance fry retention offers a practical conservation tool for fisheries managers that may aid conservation of threatened fishes like galaxiids.     

A regional version of a US economic input-output life-cycle assessment model

Background, Aims and Scope Life cycle assessment models typically use product-specific, plant-level or national aggregate data. However, many decisions by regional policy makers would be better informed by local or regional aggregate data. This research is intended to construct and apply a regional US economic input-output analysis-based life cycle assessment (REIO-LCA) model based upon publicly available datasets. The model uses Gross State Product (GSP) estimates to calculate regional economic multipliers and then link them to regional electricity and fuel use, and air emission factors. Target audiences are governmental decision makers, industry experts and researchers concerned with the regional economic and environmental effects of public and private decisions. Methods A regional version of the existing US EIO-LCA model was developed using regional economic multipliers and state environmental data. The national model is based on the US 491 by 491 economic input-output model, and uses sectoral energy consumption and emission factors to approximate the environmental effects of production and services. The proportion of the regional value added (Gross State Product) to the national value added for each sector was used to develop economic multipliers to allocate the output of industries to individual states and multi-state regions. Inter-sectoral transaction matrices were constructed for eight regions. Regional environmental emission and resource use factors were formed based upon publicly available data of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Department of Energy. The Toxics Release Inventory include facility location parameters, enabling the estimation of sectoral toxic emissions for the regions. The national electricity and fuel use, air pollutants (CO, NO_x, PM₁₀, SO₂ and VOC) and greenhouse gas emissions used by the EIO-LCA model were proportioned based upon state totals for each sector. Results A regional economic input-output model was created for US regions, and sectoral energy use and environmental emission factors were estimated for Pennsylvania, the Far West (Alaska, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon and Washington) and the Mideast (Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania) economic areas. The use of the framework for regional IO-LCA model is demonstrated through two case studies. Discussion As a validation exercise, the regional outputs of petroleum refineries were calculated using the regional input-output matrices and the outcomes were compared to the Energy Information Administration’s (EIA) Petroleum State Profile data. The model results show that approximately 70% of the total national sectoral production takes place in three regions, i.e., South West, South East and Far West, which corresponds with the EIA statistics. The REIO-LCA model constructed for the Far West is used to conduct a second case study estimating the annual toxic air emissions of power plants in the region in 2003. The results are evaluated by comparison to data provided by the US EPA. The estimated pollutions do not differ significantly from those presented in the Toxics Release Inventory reports. Conclusions The usefulness of IO LCA models can be improved through the incorporation of local economic and environmental characteristics. Wiht the lack of US regional sectoral data, the allocation of national industrial production to regions can provide a framework to create smaller scale IO models. The results of case studies support the assumption that the GSP multipliers may be used to allocate the sectoral production to the regions, and show that the framework IO LCA model provides a reasonable approximation of supply chain economic activities and environmental effects caused by production and services. Recommendations and Perspectives The quality of data, e.g., age and level of aggregation, and the assumed linearity between sectoral outputs and environmental emissions represent the main sources of uncertainty in the model. The results show that the GSP estimates are appropriate to construct a framework for a regional economic input-output and environmental assessment model. However, further research is recommended to construct more specific state-level input-output matrices incorporating interstate commodity flows, and state environmental factors in order to mitigate the parameter uncertainties. Further, the model might be improved by updating it regularly, as more recent data become available.     

Management of raised blood pressure in New Zealand: a discussion document.

A report to the National Advisory Committee on Core Health and Disability Support Services, New Zealand, on the management of raised blood pressure recommends that decisions to treat raised blood pressure should be based primarily on the estimated absolute risk of cardiovascular disease rather than on blood pressure alone. In general, patients with a blood pressure of 150-170 mm Hg systolic or 90-100 mm Hg diastolic, or both, should be given treatment to lower blood pressure if the risk of a major cardiovascular disease event in 10 years is more than about 20%. The results of clinical trials indicate that, at this level of absolute risk, 150 people would require treatment to reduce the annual number of cardiovascular events by about one. Implementation of these recommendations may result in a smaller proportion of people aged under 60, particularly women, receiving treatment but an increased proportion of older people treated. In the absence of specific contraindications, low dose diuretics and low dose beta blockers should be considered for first line treatment, since for only these drug groups is there direct evidence of reduced risk of stroke and coronary disease in people with raised blood pressure.     

A database for the life-cycle assessment of procter &; gamble laundry detergents

A Life-Cycle Inventory (LCI) and Assessment (LCA) database for laundry detergents of the Procter & Gamble Company (P&G) was constructed using SimaPro software. The input data needed to conduct a product LCI came from several different, supporting databases to cover supplier (extraction and manufacturing of raw materials), manufacturing of the detergent product, transportation, packaging, use and disposal stages. Manufacturing, packaging and transportation stages are usually representative of European conditions while the use and disposal stages are country specific and represent how consumers are using a specific product and how wastes are disposed of. The database has been constructed to allow Procter & Gamble managers to analyse detergent products from a system-wide, functional unit point of view in a consistent, transparent and reproducible manner. For demonstrative purpose, a life cycle inventory and a life cycle impact assessment of a P&G laundry detergent used in Belgium is presented. The analysis showed that more than 80% of the energy consumption occurs during the consumer use stage (mainly for heating of the water). Air and solid waste follow the same pattern, most of these being associated with die energy generation for the use stage. More than 98% of the biological oxygen demand, however, is associated with the disposal stage even after accounting for removal during treatment. Future challenges are the completion and/or updating of all detergent ingredient inventories.     

Ochratoxin A and citrinin nephrotoxicity in New Zealand White rabbits: an ultrastructural assessment

In the present investigation, ochratoxin A (OTA) (0.75 mg/kg feed) and citrinin (CIT) (15 mg/kg feed) were fed alone and in combination to young growing New Zealand White rabbits for 60 days to evaluate renal ultrastructural alterations. The severity and intensity of renal ultrastructural changes varied with the type of the treatment, and predominant and consistent lesions were recorded in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) lining cells. The significant changes in mitochondria, the most affected cell organelle in all the treatment groups, included mitochondrial disintegration and distortion, pleomorphism, cluster formation and misshapen appearance such as signet ring, dumbbell, cup and U shapes. Intra-cisternal sequestrations of involuting mitochondria, and thickening of basal layer of PCT epithelial cells with partial detachment, were the characteristic features observed in OTA and combination treatments. CIT treatment revealed crenated nucleus, loss of nucleolus, depletion of cytoplasmic organelles, mitochondrial pleomorphism, nuclear fragmentation, uniform folding of cell membrane and cytoplasmic vacuolations in the PCTs. Focal thickening of the glomerular basement membrane and degeneration of endothelial cells were the prominent alterations in the glomeruli in OTA and combination treatments. Distal convoluted tubules were unaffected in CIT treatment, however, mild to moderate lesions were observed in OTA and combination treated rabbits. It may be concluded that on simultaneous exposure, CIT potentiated the toxic effects of OTA on renal ultrastructure. Part of M.V.Sc thesis research work of first author, Deemed University, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122 (U. P.), India.     

A preliminary note on Incurvarioidea in New Zealand

Abstract

The Monotrysian superfamily Incurvarioidea (Lepidoptera) is now known to be present inNew Zealand. A mummified partly decayed male, parasitised pupae, larval head capsules, and characteristic cocoons are associated with long (1500–2000 mm) meandering cortical scribble-like mines in sapling Weinmannia, Nothofagus and Myrsine. The fragments and larval biology display features of Prodoxidae, but cannot be assigned to a genus.

Wing pattern, some forewing venation, pupal structure, male genitalia and some female ovipositor structures, larval head capsule and pronotum, and details of the pupal cell and larval mine are described and illustrated.     

Dendroprovenancing: A preliminary assessment of potential to geo-locate kauri timbers in northern New Zealand

After 1840, New Zealand kauri (Agathis australis) became the focus of a large-scale timber industry in the upper North Island, which converted trees into timber that was then used in construction. Cities such as Auckland and Wellington relied on importing kauri to meet local demand for construction and other uses. Kauri timbers from buildings and in-ground features, mostly in Auckland city, have been collected for tree-dating and master chronology development. Although the use of timber at archaeological sites is understood, the geographic origin of the timber from within the natural range of kauri (north of 38 °S) is largely unknown. This limits interpretation of archaeological wood and constrains use of the tree-ring data in dendroclimatology. In this paper, we consider the potential to provenance kauri timbers used in 19^th and early 20^th century New Zealand buildings, using a combination of documentary sources, t-value mapping, and refined statistical matching using spatial patterns of correlations. Analysis of documentary sources for a test period of 1861–1865 CE indicates that there is sufficient information about the kauri timber industry to provide a geographic context for provenancing kauri in the upper North Island. The use of t-values for provenancing may be confounded by the relatively small size of the kauri growth region and a lack of sufficient spatial differentiation in growth patterns between the sub-regions. However, a new approach of using indexed residual chronologies and field correlations has promise for geo-locating timber in a relatively small region. The research highlights the value of establishing kauri provenance to New Zealand dendroclimatology, dendroarchaeology and environmental history.     

Comparative life-cycle impact assessment of concrete manufacturing in Singapore

Purpose

For countries like Singapore that is highly dependent on imported goods, it is essential to consider the consequences of consumption of imported cement and other concrete constituents for a fair carbon trading at global and regional levels. Recently, as a result of reduction in trade barriers and costs of materials and fuels, Singapore does not have much incentive in reducing environmental impacts of these imported goods. However, Singapore has set high environmental targets nationally to reduce impacts from building and construction. In addition to its national efforts, Singapore also needs to take action in trade-related consequences of importing energy-intensive products like cement and aggregates to Singapore. The purpose of this study is to quantify and suggest alternatives for reducing the embodied energy and life-cycle impacts of concrete consumption in Singapore on the basis of current trading volumes of these materials from Singapore’s importers.

Methods

A detailed life-cycle assessment of concrete manufacturing in Singapore is performed to suggest possible ways to reduce the environmental impacts from importing cement and aggregates from Singapore’s trade partners based on an earlier life-cycle inventory developed for Singapore and its neighboring countries. Life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) impact characterization factors are based on a midpoint-oriented and hierarchist approach as defined by ReCiPe method. Following the LCIA, a scenario analysis is conducted to select the best combination of cement and aggregate importers of Singapore based on their environmental performance.

Results and discussion

Results from the scenario analysis show that overall impacts can be reduced by importing the materials from a nearer source with efficient production technologies and greener fuel mixes. About 10–34 % reduction is estimated in embodied energy, acidification, eutrophication, global warming potential, smog, and health impacts by importing from a closer and technologically greener source.

Conclusions

Despite the limitations due to data and modeling uncertainties, this study constitutes a baseline/benchmark for addressing the current cement and aggregate markets and associated environmental impacts of concrete consumption in Singapore based on historical import quantities of cement and aggregates from neighboring countries of Singapore. In the near future, policy-related action would be influential in achieving Singapore’s national and global environmental targets in buildings and construction sector. Incorporation of an LCA approach into Green Mark Scheme (GMS) by the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) is recommended for Singapore to comply both with its national goals and with its new climate action plan to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.

     

Risk assessment method for submerged weeds in New Zealand hydroelectric lakes

The latent potential for problematic weed growth in a hydro-lake is proportional to water level fluctuation, water clarity, lake shape, littoral gradient and exposure to wave action. These five factors were used to assess a score for measuring the latent potential for weed impact and each factor was allocated a score of 1–5, with a theoretical maximum of 25. Any hydro-lake scoring above 15 could be expected to present potential inconvenience to power generation, given the presence of suitable submerged weed species. Assessment of potential impact arising from weed invasion must firstly determine what species are already established, and whether it is possible for a weed species of greater potential impact to be introduced. The risk of this occurring is dependent upon a number of factors, including public accessibility, proximity to sources of those species and the desirability of the waterbody to potential weed vectors. Once these factors are quantified, appropriate surveillance strategies in high-risk hydro-lakes may then be developed.     

A laboratory method for assessment of nitrogen availability in soils

Summary The nitrogen availability index determined as nitric acid potential gave significant correlations with the yield of bajra, wheat and rice crops in experiments conducted on alluvial soils of Delhi at the IARI Farm. The coefficient of correlation was also the highest when data from similar experiments on wheat on alluvial, grey brown, sierozem and medium black soils from different places in India were pooled. It was found that the nitric acid potential seems to be independent of soil type and is also applicable to various agroclimatic conditions.     

Burning in a New Zealand snow-tussock grassland: Effects on soil microbial biomass and nitrogen and phosphorus availability

Fire has been an important management tool in the pastoral use of New Zealand tussock grasslands. The effects of a farm-scale pastoral fire and subsequent grazing by sheep on soil biochemical properties in tussock grasslands dominated by the narrow-leaved snow tussock (Chionochloa rigida ssp. rigida) were investigated, 1.5 and 2.5 years after the fire event, in 0-2 cm depth mineral soil at a site at 975 m altitude in Central Otago, New Zealand. The nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations of C. rigida leaves were also measured. Comparisons were made with soil and tussock leaves from an adjacent unburned site. At both samplings, values of total soil organic carbon (C), extractable C, microbial biomass C, and basal respiratory activity were, on average, 14%, 18%, 23%, and 40%, respectively, lower at the burned than at the unburned site. In contrast, microbial N values were roughly similar at both sites, while microbial P values were 42% higher at the burned site after 1.5 years. Phosphomonoesterase and phosphodiesterase activities were then also similar at both sites, whereas invertase activity was higher at the burned site. The greater availability of N and P at the burned site was confirmed by the higher concentrations of N and P in C. rigida leaves sampled 2 years after the fire. Ratios of microbial C:microbial N and microbial C:microbial P were significantly lower at both samplings at the burned site, and emphasise the importance of the soil microbial biomass in conserving N and P after pastoral burning in a grassland ecosystem.     

A remnant New Zealand carr

Carr vegetation was once extensive in New Zealand. It can be divided into Cordyline australis I Carex secta carr, comprising an open wood with scattered large herbs and an abundance of Carex species, and podocarp carr, dominated by tall conifers. Both have been almost eliminated by agricultural development. We studied a remnant of Cordyline australis I Carex secta carr in South Island, which graded at one end into salt marsh. Eight communities were recognized, including one pure salt marsh and two more with saline influence. Near the stream that provided moisture and alluvium for the area were herbaceous communities. In the poorly-drained area away from the stream were communities dominated by shrubs and small trees. The soil environment is similar to that of many European carrs, though generally less organic. A number of the exotic species are also found in European carrs.     

Changes in phosphorus availability and nutrient status of indigenous forest fragments in Pastoral New Zealand Hill country

Indigenous forest fragments in rural New Zealand are increasingly valued as reservoirs of native biodiversity. Most forest species are adapted to soils of low phosphorus (P) availability, but fragments are often intermingled with managed pastures and subjected to unintended P inputs from aerial topdressing, which may compromise their long-term sustainability. Phosphorus availability and other nutrients in forest fragments were compared with adjacent fertilised pasture and reference forest areas not receiving fertiliser additions. Inorganic (H₂SO₄ soluble) P and available (Olsen) P were approximately ten times greater in fragment forest soils than reference forest soils, while total P was two times greater. The strong linear relationship between total P and cadmium, an element contained in rock phosphate fertilisers, suggested that the increased P levels in fragment forests could be attributed to P from aerial topdressing. Comparison of foliar N:P ratios show that P is being conserved in reference forests but not in fragment forest. A 5-fold increase in P mineralisation rate in forest fragments high in available P and a significant relationship between total P in forests and soil respiration suggests P availability may be limiting microbial activity in these forest systems. Forest Fragments also had base saturation and Ca, Mg, and K levels twice that of reference forests. Increased nutrient levels have been shown to alter plant successional dynamics and community composition, and raise concerns over future successional patterns and long-term stability of these forest fragments.