基于双酶偶联法合成尿苷二磷酸葡萄糖醛酸的研究

尿苷二磷酸（uridine diphosphate,UDP）-葡萄糖醛酸是细胞内重要的糖基供体,参与多种代谢途径,也是体外进行糖基化反应的重要糖基供体,但其价格昂贵、工艺复杂,限制了其大量使用,无法满足生产需求。基于此,利用双酶偶联法氧化UDP-葡萄糖生成UDP-葡萄糖醛酸,并研究反应产物的合成情况。以UDP-葡萄糖为底物、烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸（nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide,NAD+）为辅因子,利用化脓性链球菌Streptococcus pyogenes源的尿苷二磷酸葡萄糖脱氢酶（UDP-glucose dehydrogenase,UGD）、猪源的乳酸脱氢酶（lactate dehydrogenase,LDH）,双酶偶联催化合成UDP-葡萄糖醛酸,并通过高效液相色谱、质谱及核磁共振氢谱对反应产物进行检测,确定产物的结构及产物的生成量。结果表明,利用双酶偶联法氧化UDP-葡萄糖所得到的产物为UDP-葡萄糖醛酸。在UGD的作用下,氧化UDP-葡萄糖生成UDP-葡萄糖醛酸,同时辅因子NAD+在LDH的作用下实现循环再生,减少高能产物辅酶还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸（reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide,NADH）对反应的反馈抑制作用,产物的生成率约为60.17%。研究提高了产物UDP-葡萄糖醛酸产物生成量,为后续工业化制备提供了新思路。     

辅酶Ⅰ体内代谢调控研究进展

辅酶Ⅰ——烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸（nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide,NAD⁺）是一种在糖酵解、糖异生、三羧酸循环及呼吸链中发挥重要作用的辅酶,广泛参与DNA修复、组蛋白去乙酰化等生命过程。近年来研究表明NAD⁺合成的前体和中间化合物（具有维生素B3活性的烟酸、烟酰胺、烟酰胺核苷和烟酰胺单核苷酸）在预防糙皮病、延缓衰老,治疗神经和心血管多种疾病、调节胰岛素分泌、调控mRNA的表达等方面具有重要疗效。着重介绍了辅酶Ⅰ体内的合成代谢以及参与的调节衰老进程,以期为利用合成生物学技术在大肠杆菌中富集NAD⁺中间化合物提供理论依据和技术支撑。     

工业微生物中NADH的代谢调控

NADH是微生物代谢网络中的一种关键辅因子。调节微生物胞内NADH的形式与浓度是定向改变和优化微生物细胞代谢功能, 实现代谢流最大化、快速化地导向目标代谢产物的重要手段之一。以下在详尽总结了NADH生理功能的基础上, 从生化工程(添加外源电子受体、不同氧化还原态底物及NAD合成前体物, 调节培养环境和氧化还原电势)和代谢工程(过量表达NADH代谢相关酶、缺失NADH竞争途径及引入NADH外源代谢途径)两方面分析、归纳了NADH代谢调控策略, 进而凝练出调控NADH/NAD+比率调节微生物细胞代谢功能研究方面亟待解决的3个科学问题及可能的解决途径。     

多聚磷酸相关蛋白结构及生物学功能

多聚磷酸（polyphosphate,polyP）是由几个到数百个磷酸基通过高能磷酸酐键连接而成的链状多聚体,存在于所有细胞生物中.多聚磷酸相关蛋白包括多聚磷酸相关酶和多聚磷酸结合蛋白.多聚磷酸相关酶如多聚磷酸激酶（polyphosphate kinase,PPK）催化polyPn生成polyPn+1的可逆反应;外切聚磷酸酶（exopolyphosphatase,PPX）、内切聚磷酸酶（endopolyphosphatase,PPN）能将polyP水解成磷酸残基;多聚磷酸依赖的激酶将polyP的磷转移到生物小分子上,如葡萄糖和烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸（nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide,NAD）,使其分别磷酸化为6 磷酸葡萄糖和烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸（nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate,NADP）.多聚磷酸结合蛋白可与多聚磷酸结合,发挥各种生物学功能.本文将简要介绍多聚磷酸相关蛋白的结构与主要生物学功能,以阐述多聚磷酸参与的细胞内生化过程.     

胞内氧化还原水平对嗜热厌氧乙醇菌 发酵代谢的影响

辅酶NADH/NAD+在细胞内氧化还原反应中起着重要的作用,是细胞生长和能量代谢必不可少的辅因子。调节微生物胞内NADH/NAD+的比率是定向改变微生物代谢,高效获得目标代谢产物的有效手段。嗜热厌氧乙醇菌(Thermoanaerobacter ethanolicus)是高温厌氧菌中乙醇产量较高的代表性菌株,本文利用不同氧化还原态的碳源改变T.ethanolicus的胞内NADH/NAD+含量和比例,进而研究了其对细胞生长、代谢产物分布的影响。以不同比例的葡萄糖/甘露醇作为混合碳源发酵,胞内氧化还原水平、细胞的生长特性、代谢产物都发生了不同程度的差异,以葡萄糖作为唯一碳源进行培养时,T.ethanolicus生长良好,乙醇产量为0.79g/L,但胞内NADH/NAD+比值和乙醇/乙酸的比值都比较低,分别为0.47和4.82;随着葡萄糖在混合碳源中比例的下降,NADH/NAD+比值增高,发酵产物中乙醇/乙酸比值也呈现上升的趋势。而以甘露醇作为唯一碳源时,发酵产物中乙醇浓度为0.389g/L,NADH/NAD+比值和乙醇/乙酸的比值分别为1.04和16.0。     

醛糖还原酶在糖尿病性白内障中的作用

醛糖还原酶(aldose reductase,AR)是糖代谢多元醇(山梨醇)通路的第一个关键酶。在哺乳动物细胞中,正常血糖(3.8-6.1mmol/L)下,细胞中的葡萄糖主要由己糖激酶将其磷酸化转化为葡萄糖-6-磷酸,并进入糖酵解途径。只有微量的非磷酸化的葡萄糖(约3%)进入多元醇通路。然而,在高血糖状态(7 mmol/L)下,大于30%的葡萄糖通过多元醇途径代谢。多元醇途径中的第一步反应是由AR催化的还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate,NADPH)依赖性还原反应,将葡萄糖还原为山梨醇,并消耗NADPH。第二步反应是由山梨醇脱氢酶催化烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide,NAD)依赖性氧化反应,将山梨醇氧化为果糖,并消耗NAD产生NADH。AR在糖尿病性白内障形成过程中扮演着重要的角色,AR活性增高可以引发细胞内渗透压的改变,非酶糖基化的激活,氧化应激等,不同结构的AR抑制剂可以有效的阻止白内障的形成。本文主要对AR引起的这些改变在糖尿病性白内障形成过程中参与的机制以及AR抑制剂的研发与应用进行综述。     

Nampt基因表达调控机制

烟酰胺磷酸核糖转移酶(NAMPT)是烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(NAD)生物合成途径的关键限速酶, 也被称为内脏脂肪素(Visfatin)或前B细胞克隆增强因子(PBEF)。它通过调节机体或细胞的NAD水平以及通过其他非酶机制等途径影响代谢、炎症反应、细胞的增殖、分化和凋亡, 特别是衰老等诸多过程。文章简要综述了近年来Nampt基因的表达调控及其转录的反馈调节机制研究进展。     

关键酶基因转录水平对重组大肠杆菌合成NAD+的影响

[目的] 烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸（nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide）是生物体内一种重要的辅因子,其细胞内含量对于NAD⁺依赖型氧化还原反应和有关生化合成代谢具有重要意义。为强化辅因子合成,本文通过不同诱导条件下关键酶基因转录水平与产物合成水平的相关性分析,利用增加正向关键酶基因拷贝数策略提高胞内氧化型辅酶NAD⁺的浓度。[方法] 以实验室前期构建的大肠杆菌NA016为出发菌株,分别从诱导温度、诱导剂浓度、诱导时机三个方面进行了诱导条件的优化,并利用实时荧光定量PCR（RT-qPCR）技术对代谢改造中的有关过表达基因进行了转录水平分析,确定了NAD⁺含量与这些过表达基因转录水平之间的相关性,增加对NAD⁺合成代谢具有正向作用的基因拷贝数以进一步提高胞内NAD⁺水平。[结果] 通过诱导条件优化实验确定菌株NA016的最适诱导温度,在诱导时机为OD₆₀₀达到0.6时加入0.8 mmol/L的IPTG可使胞内NAD⁺含量提高35.37%;转录水平方面分析发现基因nadE和pncB的表达对NAD⁺的合成具有正向调节作用。进一步增加菌株NA016中关键酶基因nadE和pncB的拷贝数可使辅酶含量再次提高22.46%,最高可达41.66μmol/g DCW。[结论] 优化诱导条件和增加关键酶基因拷贝数可以提高氧化型辅酶NAD⁺的含量,这为促进大肠杆菌胞内NAD⁺合成的研究提供借鉴意义。     

烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸和Sirtuins在衰老和疾病中的作用

烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD⁺)作为氧化还原反应的重要辅酶,是能量代谢的核心。NAD⁺也是非氧化还原NAD⁺依赖性酶的共底物,包括沉默信息调节因子(Sirtuins)、聚ADP-核糖聚合酶(poly ADP-ribose polymerases, PARPs)、CD38/CD157胞外酶等。NAD⁺已成为细胞信号转导和细胞存活的关键调节剂。最近的研究表明,Sirtuins催化多种NAD⁺依赖性反应,包括去乙酰化、脱酰基化和ADP-核糖基化。Sirtuins催化活性取决于NAD⁺水平的高低。因此,Sirtuins是细胞代谢和氧化还原状态关键传感器。哺乳动物中已经鉴定并表征了7个Sirtuins家族成员(SIRT1-7),其参与炎症、细胞生长、生理节律、能量代谢、神经元功能、应激反应和健康衰老等多种生理过程。本文归纳了NAD⁺的生理浓度及状态、NAD⁺的生物合成途径,并阐述了Sirtuins的生物学功能,重点讨论了SIRT1-7表达及活性与衰老和疾病之间的关系。此外,本文还进一步探讨了NAD⁺和Sirtuins依赖的衰老机制,机体NAD⁺水平随着年龄增长而下降,导致Sirtuins活性下降,尤其是SIRT1、SIRT3和SIRT6,引发细胞核和线粒体功能下降,衰老及老化相关疾病也随之发生。研究表明,NAD⁺前体补充剂能够快速提高机体NAD⁺水平和Sirtuins活性,是一种有效的抗衰老干预措施,为全球老龄化社会带来希望。     

SIRT1的研究进展

哺乳动物细胞SIRT1(Sirtuin1)是一种依赖于烟酰胺腺苷二核苷酸(NAD+)的去乙酰化酶,与酵母细胞中与物质代谢和长寿有关的沉默信息调节因子SIR2同源,具有对底物去乙酰化功能的基因。SIRT1通过使底物蛋白的去乙酰化而调控DNA的表达、细胞凋亡、衰老,参与生物体生理或病理过程。本文对SIRT1与寿命、癌症、新陈代谢紊乱等疾病的生物学机理和治疗方法的相关性进行综述。     

NAD: Not just a pawn on the board of plant-pathogen interactions

Many metabolic processes that occur in living cells involve oxido-reduction (redox) chemistry underpinned by redox compounds such as glutathione, ascorbate and/or pyridine nucleotides. Among these redox carriers, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is the cornerstone of cellular oxidations along catabolism and is therefore essential for plant growth and development. In addition to its redox role, there is now compelling evidence that NAD is a signal molecule controlling crucial functions like primary and secondary carbon metabolism. Recent studies using integrative -omics approaches combined with molecular pathology have shown that manipulating NAD biosynthesis and recycling lead to an alteration of metabolites pools and developmental processes, and changes in the resistance to various pathogens. NAD levels should now be viewed as a potential target to improve tolerance to biotic stress and crop improvement. In this paper, we review the current knowledge on the key role of NAD (and its metabolism) in plant responses to pathogen infections.     

Nicotinamidase participates in the salvage pathway of NAD biosynthesis in Arabidopsis

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), which is derived from NAD, have important roles as a redox carriers in metabolism. A combination of de novo and salvage pathways contribute to the biosynthesis of NAD in all organisms. The pathways and enzymes of the NAD salvage pathway in yeast and animals, which diverge at nicotinamide, have been extensively studied. Yeast cells convert nicotinamide to nicotinic acid, while mammals lack the enzyme nicotinamidase and instead convert nicotinamide to nicotinamide mononucleotide. Here we show that Arabidopsis thaliana gene At2g22570 encodes a nicotinamidase, which is expressed in all tissues, with the highest levels observed in roots and stems. The 244-residue protein, designated AtNIC1, converts nicotinamide to nicotinic acid and has a Km value of 118 +/- 17 microM and a Kcat value of 0.93 +/- 0.13 sec(-1). Plants homozygous for a null AtNIC1 allele, nic1-1, have lower levels of NAD and NADP under normal growth conditions, indicating that AtNIC1 participates in a yeast-type NAD salvage pathway. Mutant plants also exhibit hypersensitivity to treatments of abscisic acid and NaCl, which is correlated with their inability to increase the cellular levels of NAD(H) under these growth conditions, as occurs in wild-type plants. We also show that the growth of the roots of wild-type but not nic1-1 mutant plants is inhibited and distorted by nicotinamide.     

The new life of a centenarian: signalling functions of NAD(P)

Since the beginning of the last century, seminal discoveries have identified pyridine nucleotides as the major redox carriers in all organisms. Recent research has unravelled an unexpectedly wide array of signalling pathways that involve nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and its phosphorylated form, NADP. NAD serves as substrate for protein modification including protein deacetylation, and mono- and poly-ADP-ribosylation. Both NAD and NADP represent precursors of intracellular calcium-mobilizing molecules. It is now beyond doubt that NAD(P)-mediated signal transduction does not merely regulate metabolic pathways, but might hold a key position in the control of fundamental cellular processes. The comprehensive molecular characterization of NAD biosynthetic pathways over the past few years has further extended the understanding of the multiple roles of pyridine nucleotides in cell biology.     

Genetically encoded fluorescent sensors for intracellular NADH detection

We have developed genetically encoded fluorescent sensors for reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), which manifest a large change in fluorescence upon NADH binding. We demonstrate the utility of these sensors in mammalian cells by monitoring the dynamic changes in NADH levels in subcellular organelles as affected by NADH transport, glucose metabolism, electron transport chain function, and redox environment, and we demonstrate the temporal separation of changes in mitochondrial and cytosolic NADH levels with perturbation. These results support the view that cytosolic NADH is sensitive to environmental changes, while mitochondria have a strong tendency to maintain physiological NADH homeostasis. These sensors provide a very good alternative to existing techniques that measure endogenous fluorescence of intracellular NAD(P)H and, owing to their superior sensitivity and specificity, allow for the selective monitoring of total cellular and compartmental responses of this essential cofactor.     

Rapid molecular technique for identification of a biological control agent Rhodosporidium diobovatum

The purpose of this study was to develop a rapid molecular technique for identification of the biological control agent, Rhodosporidium diobovatum. DNA from all yeast cultures described below was extracted, amplified by PCR using primers specific to septate fungi, and fixed to nylon membranes. Using sequence information obtained from the GenBank database, Rhodosporidium diobovatum-specific oligonucleotides were designed and, after labeling with digoxigenin-d-UTP, were used as probes in a dot-blot hybridization assay. After preliminary testing, two probes were selected for further study. For probe RD3, a positive reaction was obtained at 38, 42 and 48°C with R. diobovatum in pure culture. Other yeast isolates such as Rhodosporidium toruloides, R. fluviale, R. babjevae, R. sphaerocarpum, R. kratochvilovae, R. azoricum, Pichia anomala, and some common greenhouse pathogens tested gave a negative result. The other probe (RD1) reacted with two species, R. diobovatum and R. babjevae at 42°C. The present dot-blot assay can be used reliably to identify the biocontrol agent, Rhodosporidium diobovatum, from pure culture and plant tissue.     

Longitudinal monitoring of cell metabolism in biopharmaceutical production using label-free fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are routinely used in the biopharmaceutical industry for production of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Although multiple offline and time-consuming measurements of spent media composition and cell viability assays are used to monitor the status of culture in biopharmaceutical manufacturing, the day-to-day changes in the cellular microenvironment need further in-depth characterization. In this study, two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (2P-FLIM) was used as a tool to directly probe into the health of CHO cells from a bioreactor, exploiting the autofluorescence of intracellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAD(P)H), an enzymatic cofactor that determines the redox state of the cells. A custom-built multimodal microscope with two-photon FLIM capability was utilized to monitor changes in NAD(P)H fluorescence for longitudinal characterization of a changing environment during cell culture processes. Three different cell lines were cultured in 0.5 L shake flasks and 3 L bioreactors. The resulting FLIM data revealed differences in the fluorescence lifetime parameters, which were an indicator of alterations in metabolic activity. In addition, a simple principal component analysis (PCA) of these optical parameters was able to identify differences in metabolic progression of two cell lines cultured in bioreactors. Improved understanding of cell health during antibody production processes can result in better streamlining of process development, thereby improving product titer and verification of scale-up. To our knowledge, this is the first study to use FLIM as a label-free measure of cellular metabolism in a biopharmaceutically relevant and clinically important CHO cell line.     

Respiratory control in isolated perfused rat heart. Role of the equilibrium relations between the mitochondrial electron carriers and the adenylate system

The effects of KCl-induced cardiac arrest on the redox state of the fluorescent flavoproteins and nicotinamide nucleotides and on that of cytochromes c and a were studied by surface fluorometric and reflectance spectrophotometric methods. These changes were compared with measurements of the concentrations of the adenylate system, creatine phosphate, some intermediates of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and reactants of the glutamate dehydrogenase system.

KCl-induced cardiac arrest caused reduction of the fluorescent flavoproteins and nicotinamide nucleotides, oxidation of cytochromes c and a, inhibition of oxygen consumption and an increase in the ATP/(ADP × P_i) ratio. The increase in the latter was due mainly to a decrease in the concentration of P_i and an equivalent increase in creatine phosphate. The cytochromes c and a were maintained at equal redox potential and changed in parallel. When the redox state of the mitochondrial NAD couple was calculated from the glutamate dehydrogenase equilibrium, the free energy change (ΔG) corresponding to the potential difference between the NAD couple and cytochrome c was 115.8 kJ/mol in the beating heart and 122.2 kJ/mol in the arrested heart. The ΔG values of ATP hydrolysis calculated from the concentrations of ATP, P_i and ADP, corrected for bound ADP, were 111.1 kJ/2 mol and 115.4 kJ/2 mol in the beating and arrested heart respectively.

The accumulation of citrate and the direction of the redox changes in the respiratory carriers indicate that the tricarboxylic acid cycle flux is controlled by the respiratory chain. The data also show a near equilibrium between the electron carriers and the adenylate system and suggest that the equilibrium hypothesis of mitochondrial respiratory control is applicable to intact myocardial tissue.     

微生物NAD合成酶及其抑制剂的研究进展

NAD(P)生物代谢在能量代谢,维持氧化还原稳态以及调节细胞寿命等许多细胞进程中有重要作用。因此,NAD生物合成途径的关键酶的抑制剂就成为备受关注的候选新药,如NAD合成酶抑制剂。本文对微生物中的NAD合成酶的催化活性特征,晶体结构,调控因子以及基于晶体结构的抑制剂设计方面进行了综述,以期为基于NAD的治疗领域打开新的思路。     

In-gel activity staining of oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide kinase by blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis

Oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) kinase (NADK, E.C. 2.7.1.23) plays an instrumental role in cellular metabolism. Here we report on a blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic technique that allows the facile detection of this enzyme. The product, oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP(+)), formed following the reaction of NADK with NAD(+) and adenosine 5'-triphosphate was detected with the aid of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase or NADP(+)-isocitrate dehydrogenase, iodonitrotetrazolium chloride, and phenazine methosulfate. The bands at the respective activity sites were excised and subjected to native and denaturing two-dimensional electrophoresis for the determination of protein levels. Hence this novel electrophoretic method allows the easy detection of NADK, a critical enzyme involved in pyridine homeostasis. Furthermore, this technique allowed the monitoring of the activity and expression of this kinase in various biological systems.     

Did primitive microorganisms use nonhem iron proteins in place of NAD/P?

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) are of universal occurrence in living organisms and play a central role in coupling oxidative with reductive reactions. However, the evidence that the origin and early evolution of life occurred at high temperatures (>95°C) is now strong, and at these temperatures some modern metabolites, including both the reduced and oxidized forms of these coenzymes, are unstable. We believe there is good evidence that indicates that in the most primitive organisms nonhem iron proteins carried out many or all of the functions of NAD/P(H). This has important implications for the way in which investigations of archaebacterial metabolism are conducted.Abbreviations NAD/P(H)a Oxidised and reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate