Exploring the effects of spatial autocorrelation when identifying key drivers of wildlife crop‐raiding

Few universal trends in spatial patterns of wildlife crop‐raiding have been found. Variations in wildlife ecology and movements, and human spatial use have been identified as causes of this apparent unpredictability. However, varying spatial patterns of spatial autocorrelation (SA) in human–wildlife conflict (HWC) data could also contribute. We explicitly explore the effects of SA on wildlife crop‐raiding data in order to facilitate the design of future HWC studies. We conducted a comparative survey of raided and nonraided fields to determine key drivers of crop‐raiding. Data were subsampled at different spatial scales to select independent raiding data points. The model derived from all data was fitted to subsample data sets. Model parameters from these models were compared to determine the effect of SA. Most methods used to account for SA in data attempt to correct for the change in P‐values; yet, by subsampling data at broader spatial scales, we identified changes in regression estimates. We consequently advocate reporting both model parameters across a range of spatial scales to help biological interpretation. Patterns of SA vary spatially in our crop‐raiding data. Spatial distribution of fields should therefore be considered when choosing the spatial scale for analyses of HWC studies. Robust key drivers of elephant crop‐raiding included raiding history of a field and distance of field to a main elephant pathway. Understanding spatial patterns and determining reliable socio‐ecological drivers of wildlife crop‐raiding is paramount for designing mitigation and land‐use planning strategies to reduce HWC. Spatial patterns of HWC are complex, determined by multiple factors acting at more than one scale; therefore, studies need to be designed with an understanding of the effects of SA. Our methods are accessible to a variety of practitioners to assess the effects of SA, thereby improving the reliability of conservation management actions.     

Mitigating crop raiding by forest elephants and baboons at Kibale National Park

In Africa, most protected forests are in densely human-dominated landscapes where human–wildlife conflict is intense. We documented farmer perceptions and responses to crop-raiding wildlife from Kibale National Park, Uganda. Crop raiding was mostly (95%) by baboons (Papio anubis) and elephants (Loxodonta africana). While the financial loss caused by baboons and elephants did not differ, elephants were perceived as more damaging. Guarding and trenches were perceived as the most effective deterrent strategies for baboons and elephants, respectively. Distance from the park boundary and household income were significantly associated with a greater likelihood of crop raiding. Distance from the park, household head age and the species that raided crops, influenced whether a household applied one or more deterrent strategies. Households headed by women or older adults were most vulnerable, experiencing greater losses to raiding. Patterns of human–wildlife conflict around Kibale forest are complex, but the extent of crop damage was mostly determined by distance from the park and farm socio-economic status and thus their ability to mitigate or deter raiding. Managing crop raiding requires collaboration between the park and affected farmers to ensure that mutually managed deterrent methods, such as trenching (elephants) and guarding (baboons), are effectively shared, applied and maintained.     

Degradation and loss of forest land and land-use changes in Sarawak,East Malaysia: a study of native land use by the Iban

Swidden agriculture, commercial logging and plantation development have been considered to be the primary common causes of degradation and loss of tropical rain forests in Southeast Asia. In this paper, I chose a part of northeastern Sarawak, East Malaysia as my case study area to analyze the changes in its land-use characteristics. In the study area, as well as primeval forests, we see that land use began about 100 years ago by a native group called the Iban; commercial logging began in the 1960s, and the development of oil palm plantations began recently. I describe the changes in land use as well as their social and economic causes by referring to aerial photographs, literature surveys, interviews with government officers and the Iban, and observation of land use. My analysis of land use demonstrates that on “state land”, where commercial logging and oil palm plantation development are occurring, large areas of forest have been disturbed in a short period of time. The objective is to benefit economically in response to the social and economic conditions surrounding the study area. On the other hand, in the “Iban territory,” where the Iban practice their land use, land conversion has not occurred on a large scale and in a short period of time, even though the forest has been cut and agricultural fields have been created in response to social and economic conditions as well. They disperse small agricultural fields throughout their forest land. Therefore, the landscape of the “Iban territory” is based on secondary forest, composed of patches of forest in various stages and with several types of agricultural land. Today in Sarawak, monocrop plantations are rapidly expanding and little primeval forest remains. Given these conditions, the land-use practices of natives such as the Iban will be evaluated from the viewpoint of ecosystem and biodiversity conservation. It could play an important role in providing habitats for natural wildlife.     

海南岛主要森林类型时空动态及关键驱动因子

天然林,橡胶林和浆纸林之间转化是海南岛森林生态系统演变的主要形式.以海南岛1988年(建省),1998年(提出生态省建设)和2008年(目前)3个年代的天然林,橡胶林和浆纸林遥感解译为基础,分析了三者的格局动态及关键驱动因子,得到以下结论:(1)1988-1998和1998-2008年间,天然林总面积呈现先明显增加(增加面积10.76万hm2),后明显减少(减少面积20.03万hm2)特点;橡胶林呈先小幅下降(下降面积7.14万hm2),后大幅度增加(增加面积20.03万hm2)的变化特点,浆纸林则一直呈增加的趋势;(2)三者年动态变化率在1998-2008年间最大(1.335％),1988-2008年间次之(0.965％),1988-1998年间最小(0.490％);(3)1988-1998年天然林空间范围转化呈内部增加,外部扩展的特征,增加的部分主要来自橡胶林和其他用地类型,同时,浆纸林空间转化呈局部增加和橡胶林呈局部减少的特点;1998-2008相比1988-1998年间,天然林空间范围呈外缘收缩,内部减少的特点,橡胶林和浆纸林则呈内外部都扩张的特点.类型间转化天然林向橡胶林,浆纸林和其他类型用地转化较明显;(4)不同时期的林地面积变化主要受政策,农业人口,农林产品市场价格等外在因素的作用,同时也受到道路,高程和坡度等内在因素的影响.最后,从林业监督,生态补偿,市场调节等角度提出海南省林业发展建议.     

High value of short rotation coppice plantations for phytodiversity in rural landscapes

The demand for wood from short rotation coppice (SRC) plantations as a renewable energy source is currently increasing and could affect biodiversity in agricultural areas. The objective was to evaluate the contribution of SRC plantations to phytodiversity in agricultural landscapes assessed as species richness, species–area relationships, Shannon indices, detrended correspondence analysis on species composition, Sørensen similarities, habitat preference proportions, and species proportions found in only one land use. Vegetation surveys were conducted on 12 willow (Salix spp.) and three poplar (Populus spp.) coppice sites as well as on surrounding arable lands, grasslands and forests in central Sweden and northern Germany. SRC plantations were richer in plant species (mean: 30 species per 100 m²) than arable land (10), coniferous forests (13) and mixed forests in Germany (12). Comparing SRC plantations with other land uses, we found lowest similarities in species composition with arable lands, coniferous forests and German mixed forests and highest similarities with marginal grassland strips, grasslands and Swedish mixed forests. Similarity depended on the SRC tree cover: at increased tree cover, SRC plantations became less similar to grasslands but more similar to forests. The SRC plantations were composed of a mixture of grassland (33%), ruderal (24%) and woodland (15%) species. Species abundance in SRC plantations was more heterogeneous than in arable lands. We conclude that SRC plantations form novel habitats leading to different plant species composition compared to conventional land uses. Their landscape‐scale value for phytodiversity changes depending on harvest cycles and over time. As a structural landscape element, SRC plantations contribute positively to phytodiversity in rural areas, especially in land use mosaics where these plantations are admixed to other land uses with dissimilar plant species composition such as arable land, coniferous forest and, at the German sites, also mixed forest.     

Forestry Matters: Decline of Oaks Will Impact Wildlife in Hardwood Forests

Abstract: Acom production by oaks (Quercus spp.) is an important food resource for wildlife in many deciduous forests. Its role as a hard mast crop that can be either stored or used to build fat reserves for winter survival cannot be replaced by most other potential foods. Changes in forest management, introduced pests and pathogens, and increased deer populations have resulted in significant changes in the demography of oaks in eastern North America, as evident in Forest Inventory and Analysis data. Specifically, maples (Acer spp.) are replacing oaks in many forests through dominance of the younger age classes. These changes are not yet obvious in mast production but will take decades to reverse. Effective forest management for mast production is arguably one of the more important tasks facing wildlife professionals, yet receives scant attention by both public and private land managers. Public forests need to explicitly include mast production in their forest planning and reduce adversarial relationships over forest management. Market forces are driving commercial forests toward forest certification. Private forests compose 80% of our oak forests and are the hardest group to influence. States have not been able to effectively market forest plans and we recommend joining with advocacy groups more adept at motivating the public. Increased communication between wildlife and forestry professionals is needed through agency restructuring and joint meetings of professional agencies at the state level. Professional wildlife and forest managers are encouraged to make increased use of monitoring data and form a multiagency cooperative using a joint venture model, which has been successful for other organizations.     

Bird communities of natural and modified habitats in Panama

Only a small proportion of land can realistically be protected as nature reserves and thus conservation efforts also must focus on the ecological value of agroecosystems and developed areas surrounding nature reserves. In this study, avian communities were surveyed in 11 habitat types in central Panama, across a gradient from extensive forest to intensive agricultural land uses, to examine patterns of species richness and abundance and community composition. Wooded habitats, including extensive and fragmented forests, shade coffee plantations, and residential areas supported the most species and individuals. Nearctic-Neotropical migratory species were most numerous in lowland forest fragments, shade coffee, and residential areas. Introduced Pinus caribbea and sugar cane plantations supported the fewest species compared to all other habitats. Cattle pastures left fallow for less than two years supported more than twice as many total species as actively grazed pastures, such that species richness in fallow pastures was similar to that found in wooded habitats. Community similarities were relatively low among all habitat types (none exceeding the observed 65% similarity between extensive and fragmented lowland forests), but communities in shade coffee and residential areas were 43% and 54′% similar to lowland forest fragments, respectively. Fallow pastures and residential areas shared 60% of their species. Bird communities in shade coffee and residential areas were characterized by higher proportions of frugivorous and nectarivorous species than in native forests. These same guilds also were better represented in fallow than in grazed pastures. Raptors and piscivorous species were most prevalent in cattle pastures and rice fields. These results, though based upon only species richness and abundance, demonstrate that many human-altered habitats have potential ecological value for birds, and conservation efforts in tropical areas should focus greater attention on enhancement of agricultural and developed lands as wildlife habitat. To understand the true conservation value of these modified lands will require examination not only of numbers but also of the types of species supported by these habitats, their reproductive output and survival rates.     

Habitat attribute similarities reduce impacts of land‐use conversion on seed removal

Changes in land use strongly influence habitat attributes (e.g., herbaceous ground cover and tree richness) and can consequently affect ecological functions. Most studies have focused on the response of these ecological functions to land‐use changes within only a single vegetation type. These studies have often focused solely on agricultural conversion of forests, making it nearly impossible to draw general conclusions across other vegetation types or with other land‐use changes (e.g., afforestation). We examined the consequences of agricultural conversion for seed removal by ants in native grassland, savanna, and savanna‐forest habitats that had been transformed to planted pastures (Brachiaria decumbens) and tree plantations (Eucalyptus spp.) and explored if changes in seed removal were correlated with differences in habitat attributes between habitat types. We found that land‐use changes affected seed removal across the tree cover gradient and that the magnitude of impact was influenced by similarity in habitat attributes between native and converted habitats, being greater where there was afforestation (Eucalyptus spp in grassland and savanna). Herbaceous ground cover, soil hardness, and tree richness were the most important habitat attributes that correlated with differences in seed removal. Our results reveal that the magnitude of impact of land‐use changes on seed removal varies depending on native vegetation type and is associated with the type of habitat attribute change. Our findings have implications for biodiversity in tropical grassy systems: afforestation can have a greater detrimental impact on ecological function than tree loss.     

Assessment of Crop Damage by Protected Wild Mammalian Herbivores on the Western Boundary of Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (TATR), Central India

Crop raiding by wild herbivores close to an area of protected wildlife is a serious problem that can potentially undermine conservation efforts. Since there is orders of magnitude difference between farmers’ perception of damage and the compensation given by the government, an objective and realistic estimate of damage was found essential. We employed four different approaches to estimate the extent of and patterns in crop damage by wild herbivores along the western boundary of Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve in the state of Maharashtra, central India. These approaches highlight different aspects of the problem but converge on an estimated damage of over 50% for the fields adjacent to the forest, gradually reducing in intensity with distance. We found that the visual damage assessment method currently employed by the government for paying compensation to farmers was uncorrelated to and grossly underestimated actual damage. The findings necessitate a radical rethinking of policies to assess, mitigate as well as compensate for crop damage caused by protected wildlife species.     

Crop raiding around Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda

In areas around Lake Mburo National Park, large wild animals wander in close proximity to human settlements. This poses serious conflict in terms of crop damage. The integration of conservation with other land uses is difficult where densely settled agricultural land surrounds a protected area potentially containing problem animals, as is the case for several parks in Africa and Asia. The intensity of crop raiding was quantified through the use of random crop quadrants/plots and area estimation techniques in a portion of raided fields. The animal species concerned were documented from observations, footprints and any other marks left behind. Three variables were tested as predictors of damage: human population density, distance from the park boundary and season. In this study, data is presented regarding crop loss in the different seasons of the year, analysis of crop damage variation and animal species involved in crop loss. A diverse assemblage of animals foraged on subsistence crops and analysis of crop damage revealed significant crop depreciation by wildlife.     

Shifts in the demographics and behavior of bearded pigs (Sus barbatus) across a land‐use gradient

Beyond broad‐scale investigations of species diversity and abundance, there is little information on how land conversion in the tropics is affecting the behavior and demographics of surviving species. To fill these knowledge gaps, we explored the effects of land‐use change on the ecologically important and threatened bearded pig (Sus barbatus) over seven years in Borneo. Random placement of camera traps across a land‐use gradient of primary forest, logged forest, and oil palm plantations (32,542 trap nights) resulted in 2,303 independent capture events. Land‐use was associated with changes in the age structure and activity patterns of photographed individuals, alongside large changes in abundance shown previously. The proportion of adults recorded declined from 92% in primary forests to 76% in logged forests, and 67% in plantations, likely indicating increased fecundity in secondary forests. Activity level (capture rate) did not vary, but activity patterns changed markedly, from diurnal in primary forests, crepuscular in logged forests, to nocturnal in plantations. These changes corresponded with avoidance of diurnal human activity and may also protect bearded pigs from increased thermal stress in warmer degraded forests. The percentage of adult captures that were groups rather than individuals increased five‐fold from primary forests (4%) to logged forests (20%), possibly due to increased mating or in response to perceived threats from indirect human disturbance. We recommend further investigation of the demographic and behavioral effects of land‐use change on keystone species as altered population structure, activity patterns, and social behavior may have knock‐on effects for entire ecosystems.     

A review of the ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations,using forests as a reference system

Oil palm plantations have expanded rapidly in recent decades. This large‐scale land‐use change has had great ecological, economic, and social impacts on both the areas converted to oil palm and their surroundings. However, research on the impacts of oil palm cultivation is scattered and patchy, and no clear overview exists. We address this gap through a systematic and comprehensive literature review of all ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations, including several (genetic, medicinal and ornamental resources, information functions) not included in previous systematic reviews. We compare ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations to those in forests, as the conversion of forest to oil palm is prevalent in the tropics. We find that oil palm plantations generally have reduced ecosystem functioning compared to forests: 11 out of 14 ecosystem functions show a net decrease in level of function. Some functions show decreases with potentially irreversible global impacts (e.g. reductions in gas and climate regulation, habitat and nursery functions, genetic resources, medicinal resources, and information functions). The most serious impacts occur when forest is cleared to establish new plantations, and immediately afterwards, especially on peat soils. To variable degrees, specific plantation management measures can prevent or reduce losses of some ecosystem functions (e.g. avoid illegal land clearing via fire, avoid draining of peat, use of integrated pest management, use of cover crops, mulch, and compost) and we highlight synergistic mitigation measures that can improve multiple ecosystem functions simultaneously. The only ecosystem function which increases in oil palm plantations is, unsurprisingly, the production of marketable goods. Our review highlights numerous research gaps. In particular, there are significant gaps with respect to socio‐cultural information functions. Further, there is a need for more empirical data on the importance of spatial and temporal scales, such as differences among plantations in different environments, of different sizes, and of different ages, as our review has identified examples where ecosystem functions vary spatially and temporally. Finally, more research is needed on developing management practices that can offset the losses of ecosystem functions. Our findings should stimulate research to address the identified gaps, and provide a foundation for more systematic research and discussion on ways to minimize the negative impacts and maximize the positive impacts of oil palm cultivation.     

Vegetation dynamics and disturbance history in three deciduous forests in boreal Sweden

Abstract. Remaining deciduous forests in the Fennoscandian boreal landscape have high ecological value, and are considered as key components of the forest landscape as well as remnants of a former natural forest type. To improve our understanding of the formation of deciduous forests, we studied past disturbance regimes and vegetation dynamics in three deciduous forests in boreal Sweden using dendro‐ecology, pollen analysis and charcoal analysis. We identified three stages in the development of the studied stands. Firstly, the coniferous period (pre 1800), a long‐lasting period characterized by frequent fires, livestock grazing and extensive agriculture during which Pinus sylvestris was dominant. Secondly, the transformation period (1800 ‐ 1900), when logging removed most pines from the sites while fire and grazing continued. At the time of the last fire, the sites lacked a local seed source of pines, resulting in a post‐fire succession dominated by deciduous species with the capacity to disperse over long distances. Thirdly, the deciduous period (1900 ‐ present), with little or no disturbance from fire, grazing or logging. Thus, the present deciduous stands have their origins in a complex interaction between changes in fire regime, extensive land use patterns and logging, contrary to earlier simplified explanations. We conclude that the complexity of historical patterns of land use, vegetation dynamics and disturbance should be acknowledged in the future when selecting areas for nature conservation and developing models for ecologically oriented forestry.     

Technological advances in temperate hardwood tree improvement including breeding and molecular marker applications

Hardwood forests and plantations are an important economic resource for the forest products industry worldwide and to the international trade of lumber and logs. Hardwood trees are also planted for ecological reasons, for example, wildlife habitat, native woodland restoration, and riparian buffers. The demand for quality hardwood from tree plantations will continue to rise as the worldwide consumption of forest products increases. Tree improvement of temperate hardwoods has lagged behind that of coniferous species and hardwoods of the genera Populus and Eucalyptus. The development of marker systems has become an almost necessary complement to the classical breeding and improvement of hardwood tree populations for superior growth, form, and timber characteristics. Molecular markers are especially valuable for determining the reproductive biology and population structure of natural forests and plantations, and the identity of genes affecting quantitative traits. Clonal reproduction of commercially important hardwood tree species provides improved planting stock for use in progeny testing and production forestry. Development of in vitro and conventional vegetative propagation methods allows mass production of clones of mature, elite genotypes or genetically improved genotypes. Genetic modification of hardwood tree species could potentially produce trees with herbicide tolerance, disease and pest resistance, improved wood quality, and reproductive manipulations for commercial plantations. This review concentrates on recent advances in conventional breeding and selection, molecular marker application, in vitro culture, and genetic transformation, and discusses the future challenges and opportunities for valuable temperate (or “fine”) hardwood tree improvement.     

Use of wild and cultivated foods by chimpanzees at Bossou,Republic of Guinea: feeding dynamics in a human‐influenced environment

Increased human population growth and more conversions of natural habitat to agricultural land have resulted in greater proximity between humans and nonhuman primate species. Consequent increases in resource competition including crop‐raiding are a by‐product of both natural resources becoming less available and the nutritional benefits of cultivated foods becoming more known to the nonhuman primates. Chimpanzees at Bossou in the Republic of Guinea, West Africa, consume 17 different types of cultivated foods that are grown extensively throughout their small, fragmented home range. Direct observations of feeding behavior conducted over an 18‐month period revealed that during specific months crops account for up to one quarter of chimpanzee feeding time, with higher overall crop‐raiding levels throughout the periods of wild fruit scarcity. Some cultivated foods, especially sugar fruits, are mostly fallback foods, whereas others, such as rice pith (Oryza sp.) and maize (Zea mays), are consumed according to their availability even when wild foods are abundant. These findings highlight the importance of both crop choice by farmers and a thorough understanding of the ecology of resident primate species when establishing land management techniques for alleviating human–primate conflict. Am. J. Primatol. 71:636–646, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Effects of vegetation type on habitat use by crop-raiding Japanese macaques during a food-scarce season

Habitat use by crop-raiding Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) was studied in western Japan from December 2005 to February 2006, a food-scarce season. To examine how different vegetation types affect habitat use by monkeys, two crop-raiding troops were compared: the first troop inhabited a habitat involving more wild food resources; the second troop inhabited a habitat providing fewer wild food resources. It was hypothesized that monkeys living in the habitat with fewer wild food resources are more likely to utilize human settlements and areas around them (i.e. adjacent zones), with a dependence on crop foods. Comparisons of observed and expected habitat use frequencies showed that the first troop selected evergreen broad-leaved forests and conifer plantations, and avoided adjacent zones, rice fields, and golf courses. The second troop selected adjacent zones and avoided conifer plantations, pine forests, and deciduous broad-leaved forests. Both troops moved rapidly in avoided habitat types. These results suggest that monkeys living in the habitat with fewer wild food resources are more likely to utilize areas around human settlements during a food-scarce season.     

Patterns and perceptions of wildlife crop raiding in and around Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra

Crop raiding can reduce farmers' tolerance towards wildlife. Despite higher human population densities in rural areas, and more rapid conversion of forest to farmland, much less is known about crop raiding in Asia than in Africa. Over 14 months, we identified perceived and actual crop pests, and their patterns of crop raiding from farmland in and around Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra. Farmers named either the wild boar Sus scrofa (80%) or the pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina (20%) as the two most destructive crop pests. From 5125 crop raids by 11 species of mammal, most raids were indeed made by the wild boar (56%) and the pig-tailed macaque (19%). For all species combined, temporal crop raiding peaks were positively correlated with periods of high rainfall. Spatially, most crop raids occurred nearest to the forest edge and the local guarding strategies used were ineffective. However, raids by wild boars were more extensive than raids by pig-tailed macaques, which caused much greater crop damage (73%) than wild boars (26%), contrary to farmers' perceptions. Our research suggests that alternative mitigation strategies need to be trialed over dry and rainy seasons to identify the most effective strategies and that guarding effort should be increased during the rainy seasons and tailored towards specific crop raiding species based on their unique spatial patterns.     

First fungus gnats of genus Manota Williston (Diptera: Mycetophilidae) from Japan

The genus Manota is recorded from Japan for the first time. Three new species, Manota satoyamanis, Manota indahae and Manota tunoae spp. nov., are described, based on specimens collected in an ecological sampling program of arthropods in the “satoyama” landscape of Ishikawa Prefecture. “Satoyama” represents the traditional rural landscape of Japan, which is characterized by a mosaic of secondary forests, plantations, ponds and rice paddy fields. The new species raise the number of Palearctic Manota species from five to eight.     

Impact of Logging and Forest Conversion to Oil Palm Plantations on Soil Bacterial Communities in Borneo

Tropical forests are being rapidly altered by logging and cleared for agriculture. Understanding the effects of these land use changes on soil bacteria, which constitute a large proportion of total biodiversity and perform important ecosystem functions, is a major conservation frontier. Here we studied the effects of logging history and forest conversion to oil palm plantations in Sabah, Borneo, on the soil bacterial community. We used paired-end Illumina sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene, V3 region, to compare the bacterial communities in primary, once-logged, and twice-logged forest and land converted to oil palm plantations. Bacteria were grouped into operational taxonomic units (OTUs) at the 97% similarity level, and OTU richness and local-scale α-diversity showed no difference between the various forest types and oil palm plantations. Focusing on the turnover of bacteria across space, true β-diversity was higher in oil palm plantation soil than in forest soil, whereas community dissimilarity-based metrics of β-diversity were only marginally different between habitats, suggesting that at large scales, oil palm plantation soil could have higher overall γ-diversity than forest soil, driven by a slightly more heterogeneous community across space. Clearance of primary and logged forest for oil palm plantations did, however, significantly impact the composition of soil bacterial communities, reflecting in part the loss of some forest bacteria, whereas primary and logged forests did not differ in composition. Overall, our results suggest that the soil bacteria of tropical forest are to some extent resilient or resistant to logging but that the impacts of forest conversion to oil palm plantations are more severe.     

The conflict between vervet monkeys and farmers at the forest edge in Entebbe, Uganda

Forty‐seven property owners in Entebbe, Uganda were questioned about vervet monkey activities on their property. Our main objective was to investigate the interactions between humans and vervet monkeys in an agricultural area adjacent to a forest zone. Other studies have reported that farms located within 300 m of a forested boundary probably incur the greatest risk of crop‐raiding. Two other factors that may influence susceptibility to vervet crop‐raiding were also examined: the types of crops grown and the types of direct preventative measures used. The effect of these two factors on vervet crop‐raiding is not straightforward. However, the distance a property is located from the forest edge is an important factor influencing vervet crop‐raiding. Surveyed gardens 200 m from the forest edge received significantly less crop‐raiding than farms located 100 m or 50 m (P = 0.040, < α = 0.05). We suggest that the development of nonagricultural activities on land directly adjacent to forested areas may reduce vervet crop‐raiding by deterring vervets from travelling greater distances from the forest edge due to increased obstacles or risks.