Genome level analysis of rice mRNA 3'-end processing signals and alternative polyadenylation

The position of a poly(A) site of eukaryotic mRNA is determined by sequence signals in pre-mRNA and a group of polyadenylation factors. To reveal rice poly(A) signals at a genome level, we constructed a dataset of 55 742 authenticated poly(A) sites and characterized the poly(A) signals. This resulted in identifying the typical tripartite cis-elements, including FUE, NUE and CE, as previously observed in Arabidopsis. The average size of the 3′-UTR was 289 nucleotides. When mapped to the genome, however, 15% of these poly(A) sites were found to be located in the currently annotated intergenic regions. Moreover, an extensive alternative polyadenylation profile was evident where 50% of the genes analyzed had more than one unique poly(A) site (excluding microheterogeneity sites), and 13% had four or more poly(A) sites. About 4% of the analyzed genes possessed alternative poly(A) sites at their introns, 5′-UTRs, or protein coding regions. The authenticity of these alternative poly(A) sites was partially confirmed using MPSS data. Analysis of nucleotide profile and signal patterns indicated that there may be a different set of poly(A) signals for those poly(A) sites found in the coding regions. Based on the features of rice poly(A) signals, an updated algorithm termed PASS-Rice was designed to predict poly(A) sites.     

3'-end processing of the maize 27 kDa zein mRNA

Cis -regulatory elements involved in the mRNA 3'-end processing of the 27 kDa zein gene have been investigated by deletion and site-directed mutagenesis analyses. In the 3' flanking region of the 27 kDa zein gene, several AATAAA-like sequences and a sequence resembling the mammalian GT-rich sequence are present around the polyadenylation sites. Among the multiple AATAAA-like sequences, the duplicated AATGAA motifs, located 30–40 bp upstream from the polyadenylation sites, have been shown to play roles as polyadenylation signals. Although either of the two AATGAA motifs can function as a polyadenylation signal in chimeric gene constructs, the one proximal to the polyadenylation sites is likely to be the functional polyadenylation signal in the 27 kDa zein gene. Deletion of the downstream GT-rich sequence as well as alteration of the sequence surrounding the poly-adenylation sites has little effect on the mRNA 3'-end processing. However, the sequence elements located upstream from the polyadenylation signals are essential for the mRNA 3'-end processing. Mutations in the AATGAA motifs or the upstream sequences reduced the level of a reporter gene expression. A model depicting the mechanism involved in the 3'-end processing of the 27 kDa zein mRNA is presented.     

Blocking polyadenylation of mRNA in the chloroplast inhibits its degradation

The addition of poly(A)-rich sequences to endonuclease cleavage products of chloroplast mRNA has recently been suggested to target the polyadenylated RNA for rapid exonucleolytic degradation. This study analyzed whether the addition of a poly(A)-rich tail to RNA molecules is required for degradation by chloroplast exonuclease(s). In lyzed chloroplasts from spinach, addition of the polyadenylation inhibitor, cordycepin triphosphate (3′-dATP), inhibited the degradation of psbA and rbcL mRNAs. Furthermore, degradation intermediates generated by endonucleolytic cleavages accumulated. Similar results were obtained when yeast tRNA was added to the mRNA degradation system as a non-specific exoribonuclease inhibitor. Nevertheless, the stabilization mechanisms differ: while tRNA directly affects the exonuclease activity, 3′dATP has an indirect effect by inhibiting polyadenylation. The results indicate that the addition of poly(A)-rich sequences to endonucleolytic cleavage products of chloroplast mRNA is required to target these RNAs for rapid exonucleolytic degradation. Together with previous work, the data reported here support a model for mRNA degradation in the chloroplast in which endonucleolytic cleavages are followed by the addition of poly(A)-rich sequences to the proximal cleavage products, targeting these RNAs for rapid exonucleolytic decay.     

mRNA degradation in Escherichia coli: a novel factor which impedes the exoribonucleolytic activity of PNPase at stem-loop structures

Stem-loop structures can protect upstream mRNA from degradation by impeding the processive activities of 3′–5′ exoribonucleases. The ability of such structures to impede exonuclease activity in vitro is insufficient to account for the stability they can confer on mRNA in vivo. In this study we identify a factor from Escherichia coli which specifically impedes the processive activity of the 3′–5′ exonuclease PNPase at stem-loop structures in vitro. This factor can, potentialiy, reconcile the apparent discrepancy between the ability of 3′ stem-loop structures to stabilize upstream mRNA in vitro and in vivo. Its mechanism of action, and possible role in regulating mRNA degradation, is discussed.     

Evidence that polyadenylation factor CPSF-73 is the mRNA 3' processing endonuclease

Generation of the polyadenylated 3' end of an mRNA requires an endonucleolytic cleavage followed by synthesis of the poly(A) tail. Despite the seeming simplicity of the reaction, more than a dozen polypeptides are required, and nearly all appear to be necessary for the cleavage reaction. Because of this complexity, the identity of the endonuclease has remained a mystery. Here we present evidence that a component of the cleavage-polyadenylation specificity factor CPSF-73 is the long-sought endonuclease. We first show, using site-specific labeling and UV-cross-linking, that a protein with properties of CPSF-73 is one of only two polypeptides in HeLa nuclear extract to contact the cleavage site in an AAUAAA-dependent manner. The recent identification of CPSF-73 as a possible member of the metallo-beta-lactamase family of Zn(2+)-dependent hydrolytic enzymes suggests that this contact may identify CPSF-73 as the nuclease. Supporting the significance of the putative hydrolytic lactamase domain in CPSF-73, we show that mutation of key residues predicted to be required for activity in the yeast CPSF-73 homolog result in lethality. Furthermore, in contrast to long held belief, but consistent with properties of metallo-beta-lactamases, we show that 3' cleavage is metal-dependent, likely reflecting a requirement for tightly protein-bound Zn(2+). Taken together, the available data provide strong evidence that CPSF-73 is the 3' processing endonuclease.     

Arginine methylation and binding of Hrp1p to the efficiency element for mRNA 3'-end formation

Hrp1p is a heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae that is involved in the cleavage and polyadenylation of the 3'-end of mRNAs and mRNA export. In addition, Hrplp is one of several RNA-binding proteins that are posttranslationally modified by methylation at arginine residues. By using functional recombinant Hrp1p, we have identified RNA sequences with specific high affinity binding sites. These sites correspond to the efficiency element for mRNA 3'-end formation, UAUAUA. To examine the effect of methylation on specific RNA binding, purified recombinant arginine methyltransferase (Hmt1p) was used to methylate Hrp1p. Methylated Hrp1p binds with the same affinity to UAUAUA-containing RNAs as unmethylated Hrpl p indicating that methylation does not affect specific RNA binding. However, RNA itself inhibits the methylation of Hrp1p and this inhibition is enhanced by RNAs that specifically bind Hrpl p. Taken together, these data support a model in which protein methylation occurs prior to protein-RNA binding in the nucleus.     

3'-end processing and kinetics of 5'-end joining during retroviral integration in vivo.

Retroviral replication depends on integration of viral DNA into a host cell chromosome. Integration proceeds in three steps: 3'-end processing, the endonucleolytic removal of the two terminal nucleotides from each 3' end of the viral DNA; strand transfer, the joining of the 3' ends of viral DNA to host DNA; and 5'-end joining (or gap repair), the joining of the 5' ends of viral DNA to host DNA. The 5'-end joining step has never been investigated, either for retroviral integration or for any other transposition process. We have developed an assay for 5'-end joining in vivo and have examined the kinetics of 5'-end joining for Moloney murine leukemia virus (MLV). The interval between 3'-end and 5'-end joining is estimated to be less than 1 h. This assay will be a useful tool for examining whether viral or host components mediate 5'-end joining. MLV integrates its DNA only after its host cell has completed mitosis. We show that the extent of 3'-end processing is the same in unsynchronized and aphidicolin-arrested cells. 3'-end processing therefore does not depend on mitosis.     

Fluorescence-monitored conformational change on the 3'-end of tRNA upon aminoacylation.

Fluorescent tRNAs species with formycine in the 3'-terminal position (tRNA-CCF) were derived from Escherichia coli tRNA(Val). Thermus thermophilus tRNA(Aap) and Thermus thermophilus tRNA(Phe). The fluorescence of formycine was used to monitor the conformational changes at the 3'-terminus of tRNA caused by aminoacylation and hydrolysis of aminoacyl residue from aminoacyl-tRNAs. An increase of about 15% in the fluorescence intensity was observed after aminoacylation of the three tRNA-CCF. This change in fluorescence amplitude that is reversed by hydrolysis of the aminoacyl residue, does not depend on the structure of the amino acid or tRNA sequence. A local conformational change at the 3'-terminal formycine probably involving a partial destacking of the base moiety in the ACCF end takes place as a consequence of aminoacylation. A structural change at the 3'-terminus of tRNA induced by attachment and detachment of the acyl residue may be important in controlling the substrate/product relationship in reactions in which tRNA participates during protein biosynthesis.     

Identification and analysis of candidate fungal tRNA 3'-end processing endonucleases tRNase Zs,homologs of the putative prostate cancer susceptibility protein ELAC2

Background  

tRNase Z is the endonuclease that is responsible for the 3'-end processing of tRNA precursors, a process essential for tRNA 3'-CCA addition and subsequent tRNA aminoacylation. Based on their sizes, tRNase Zs can be divided into the long (tRNase Z^L) and short (tRNase Z^S) forms. tRNase Z^L is thought to have arisen from a tandem gene duplication of tRNase Z^S with further sequence divergence. The species distribution of tRNase Z is complex. Fungi represent an evolutionarily diverse group of eukaryotes. The recent proliferation of fungal genome sequences provides an opportunity to explore the structural and functional diversity of eukaryotic tRNase Zs.     

Kinetic study of the HIV-1 DNA 3'-end processing

The 3'-processing of viral DNA extremities is the first step in the integration process catalysed by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 integrase (IN). This reaction is relatively inefficient and processed DNAs are usually detected in vitro under conditions of excess enzyme. Despite such experimental conditions, steady-state Michaelis-Menten formalism is often applied to calculate characteristic equilibrium/kinetic constants of IN. We found that the amount of processed product was not significantly affected under conditions of excess DNA substrate, indicating that IN has a limited turnover for DNA cleavage. Therefore, IN works principally in a single-turnover mode and is intrinsically very slow (single-turnover rate constant = 0.004 min(-1)), suggesting that IN activity is mainly limited at the chemistry step or at a stage that precedes chemistry. Moreover, fluorescence experiments showed that IN-DNA product complexes were very stable over the time-course of the reaction. Binding isotherms of IN to DNA substrate and product also indicate tight binding of IN to the reaction product. Therefore, the slow cleavage rate and limited product release prevent or greatly reduce subsequent turnover. Nevertheless, the time-course of product formation approximates to a straight line for 90 min (apparent initial velocity), but we show that this linear phase is due to the slow single-turnover rate constant and does not indicate steady-state multiple turnover. Finally, our data ruled out the possibility that there were large amounts of inactive proteins or dead-end complexes in the assay. Most of complexes initially formed were active although dramatically slow.