Major components of a sea urchin block to polyspermy are structurally and functionally conserved

One sperm fusing with one egg is requisite for successful fertilization; additional sperm fusions are lethal to the embryo. Because sperm usually outnumber eggs, evolution has selected for mechanisms that prevent this polyspermy by immediately modifying the egg extracellular matrix. We focus here on the contribution of cortical granule contents in the sea urchin block to polyspermy to begin to understand how well this process is conserved. We identified each of the major constituents of the fertilization envelope in two species of seaurchins, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus and Lytechinus variegatus, that diverged 30 to 50 million years ago. Our results show that the five major structural components of the fertilization envelope, derived from the egg cortical granules, are semiconserved. Most of these orthologs share sequence identity and encode multiple low-density lipoprotein receptor type A repeats or CUB domains but at least two contain radically different carboxy-terminal repeats. Using a new association assay, we also show that these major structural components are functionally conserved during fertilization envelope construction. Thus, it seems that this population of female reproductive proteins has retained functional motifs while gaining significant sequence diversity-two opposing paths that may reflect cooperativity among the proteins that compose the fertilization envelope.     

Identification of homologous binding proteins in porcine and bovine gametes

The purpose of this study was to determine if sperm and oocyte proteins that mediate plasma membrane interaction during mammalian fertilization are conserved among porcine and bovine gametes. We examined homologous and heterologous sperm and zona-free oocyte interactions to determine the extent of cross-reactivity between the gametes of these two ungulate species. First, the numbers of ejaculated porcine and bovine sperm bound to the oocyte plasma membrane of intact porcine and bovine oocytes were determined in vitro. There was no significant difference between the number of porcine or bovine sperm that bound to porcine or bovine oocytes (P > 0.25). Second, individual porcine and bovine sperm plasma membrane proteins were identified by binding of homologous or heterologous oocyte plasma membrane to whole sperm plasma membrane on Western ligand blots. The relative amount of labeled oocyte plasma membrane bound to individual sperm plasma membrane proteins was analyzed by laser densitometry. Eight porcine sperm plasma membrane proteins and seven bovine sperm plasma membrane proteins were bound by both porcine and bovine oocyte plasma membrane. A significantly greater relative amount of porcine oocyte plasma membrane than bovine oocyte plasma membrane was bound to the 14- and 10-kD porcine sperm plasma membrane proteins (P < 0.001 and P < 0.01, respectively). A 27-kD bovine sperm plasma membrane protein bound proportionally more bovine oocyte plasma membrane probe than porcine oocyte plasma membrane probe (P < 0.04). These results are consistent with conservation of similar receptor ligand interactions at the gamete plasma membrane among porcine and bovine gametes.     

Immunochemical detection of precursor proteins of yolk and vitelline envelope, and their annual changes in the blood of Diodon holocanthus

Two distinct groups of female-specific proteins, vitellogenin (VTG) and vitelline envelope proteins (VEP), were detected in the blood of the porcupine fish Diodon holocanthus , and annual changes in concentration were measured immunochemically. Using antisera against yolk proteins (ab.a-E) and VEP (ab. a-VEP), VTG and VEP could be detected in the blood of maturing female fish and oestradiol-17β (E₂)-treated fish. Neither protein was detected in the blood of male fish. Immunohistochemistry showed that yolk globules and the vitelline envelope enclosing developing oocytes stained with ab.a-E. The vitelline envelope was stained specifically with ab.a-VEP. Hepatocytes from the E2-treated fish had immunoreactivity with both antisera. Thus, VTG and VEP appear to be synthesized in the liver by direct stimulation of E₂, released into the circulation, and incorporated into respective target sites. VTG and VEP in female serum maintained high levels from April until June, suggesting that yolk accumulation, as well as vitelline envelope formation, are occurring actively during these months. Unlike VTG, small amounts of VEP were detected between December and March, suggesting that vitelline envelope formation precedes yolk accumulation and that a slightly different hormonal regulation exists in the synthesis of both proteins in the liver during the early phase of oogenesis.     

ZP genes in avian species illustrate the dynamic evolution of the vertebrate egg envelope

The vertebrate egg envelope is composed of a set of related proteins, encoded by the ZP genes. The apparent simplicity of the egg envelope is in contrast to the number of ZP genes identified by conventional cloning and data mining of genome sequences from a number of vertebrates. The vertebrate ZP genes fall into five classes, ZP1, ZP2, ZP3, ZPD and ZPAX. Analysis of chicken genome and EST sequence data has revealed the presence of seven distinct ZP genes, falling into these classes that are expressed in the female reproductive system. Comparison with the repertoire of ZP genes in other vertebrates suggests a major source of diversity in the composition of the egg envelope is a continual process of amplification, diversification and attrition of ZP gene sequences.     

Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of an ascidian egg beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase with a potential role in fertilization

Beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase, which is found almost ubiquitously in sperm of invertebrates and vertebrates, supposedly mediates a carbohydrate-based transient sperm-egg coat binding. In ascidians and mammals, beta-hexosaminidase released at fertilization from eggs has been proposed to modify sperm receptor glycoproteins of the egg envelope, thus setting up a block to polyspermy. Previously, it was shown that in potential sperm receptor glycoproteins of the ascidian Phallusia mammillata, N-acetylglucosamine is the prevailing glycoside residue and that the egg harbors three active molecular forms of beta-hexosaminidase. In the present study, P. mammillata beta-hexosaminidase cDNA was isolated from an ovarian cDNA library and characterized. The deduced amino acid sequence showed a high similarity with other known beta-hexosaminidases; however, P. mammillata beta-hexosaminidase had a unique potential N-glycosylation site. A phylogenetic analysis suggested that P. mammillata beta-hexosaminidase developed independently after having branched off from the common ancestor gene of the chordate enzyme before two isoforms of the mammalian enzyme appeared. In situ hybridization revealed stage-specific expression of beta-hexosaminidase mRNA during oogenesis in the oocyte and in the accessory test and follicle cells. This suggests that the three egg beta-hexosaminidase forms are specific for the oocyte, test cells and follicle cells.     

Dependence of removal of sperm-specific proteins from Xenopus sperm nuclei on the phosphorylation state of nucleoplasmin

In Xenopus laevis , nucleoplasmin from fully grown oocytes is not highly phosphorylated, but is more extensively phosphorylated during oocyte maturation to retain this state until mid-blastula transition. Incubation of demembranated sperm with nucleoplasmin from oocytes or mature eggs revealed that egg nucleoplasmin is twice as potent as oocyte nucleoplasmin in removing sperm-specific basic proteins from chromatin (protamine-removing activity: PRA). Dephosphorylation of egg nucleoplasmin by alkaline phosphatase induced a remarkable decline of PRA in nucleoplasmin. Treatment of oocyte nucleoplasmin with cdc2 protein kinase induced an increase of the extent of phosphorylation, but to a level lower than that exhibited by egg nucleoplasmin, suggesting the involvement of other unspecified kinase(s) in phosphorylating nucleoplasmin during oocyte maturation. Incubation of sperm with cdc2 kinase induced selective phosphorylation of sperm-specific basic proteins, accompanied by their enhanced removal from sperm chromatin upon exposure to high-salt solutions. These results suggest that removal of sperm-specific basic proteins from sperm chromatin in fertilized eggs is facilitated by phosphorylation of both nucleoplasmin and sperm-specific basic proteins.     

Sustained post-mating response in Drosophila melanogaster requires multiple seminal fluid proteins

Successful reproduction is critical to pass genes to the next generation. Seminal proteins contribute to important reproductive processes that lead to fertilization in species ranging from insects to mammals. In Drosophila, the male's accessory gland is a source of seminal fluid proteins that affect the reproductive output of males and females by altering female post-mating behavior and physiology. Protein classes found in the seminal fluid of Drosophila are similar to those of other organisms, including mammals. By using RNA interference (RNAi) to knock down levels of individual accessory gland proteins (Acps), we investigated the role of 25 Acps in mediating three post-mating female responses: egg production, receptivity to remating and storage of sperm. We detected roles for five Acps in these post-mating responses. CG33943 is required for full stimulation of egg production on the first day after mating. Four other Acps (CG1652, CG1656, CG17575, and CG9997) appear to modulate the long-term response, which is the maintenance of post-mating behavior and physiological changes. The long-term post-mating response requires presence of sperm in storage and, until now, had been known to require only a single Acp. Here, we discovered several novel Acps together are required which together are required for sustained egg production, reduction in receptivity to remating of the mated female and for promotion of stored sperm release from the seminal receptacle. Our results also show that members of conserved protein classes found in seminal plasma from insects to mammals are essential for important reproductive processes.     

Conservation of the egg envelope digestion mechanism of hatching enzyme in euteleostean fishes

We purified two hatching enzymes, namely high choriolytic enzyme (HCE; EC 3.4.24.67) and low choriolytic enzyme (LCE; EC 3.4.24.66), from the hatching liquid of Fundulus heteroclitus, which were named Fundulus HCE (FHCE) and Fundulus LCE (FLCE). FHCE swelled the inner layer of egg envelope, and FLCE completely digested the FHCE-swollen envelope. In addition, we cloned three Fundulus cDNAs orthologous to cDNAs for the medaka precursors of egg envelope subunit proteins (i.e. choriogenins H, H minor and L) from the female liver. Cleavage sites of FHCE and FLCE on egg envelope subunit proteins were determined by comparing the N-terminal amino acid sequences of digests with the sequences deduced from the cDNAs for egg envelope subunit proteins. FHCE and FLCE cleaved different sites of the subunit proteins. FHCE efficiently cleaved the Pro-X-Y repeat regions into tripeptides to dodecapeptides to swell the envelope, whereas FLCE cleaved the inside of the zona pellucida domain, the core structure of egg envelope subunit protein, to completely digest the FHCE-swollen envelope. A comparison showed that the positions of hatching enzyme cleavage sites on egg envelope subunit proteins were strictly conserved between Fundulus and medaka. Finally, we extended such a comparison to three other euteleosts (i.e. three-spined stickleback, spotted halibut and rainbow trout) and found that the egg envelope digestion mechanism was well conserved among them. During evolution, the egg envelope digestion by HCE and LCE orthologs was established in the lineage of euteleosts, and the mechanism is suggested to be conserved.     

Egg extracellular coat proteins: from fish to mammals

The extracellular coat surrounding fish (vitelline envelope; VE) and mammalian (zona pellucida; ZP) eggs is composed of long, interconnected filaments. Fish VE and mammalian ZP proteins that make up the filaments are highly conserved groups of proteins that are related to each other, as well as to their amphibian and avian egg counterparts. The rainbow trout (O. mykiss) egg VE is composed of 3 proteins, called VEalpha (approximately 58 kDa), VEbeta (approximately 54 kDa), and VEgamma (approximately 47 kDa). The mouse (M. musculus) egg ZP also is composed of 3 proteins, called ZP1 (approximately 200 kDa), ZP2 (approximately 120 kDa), and ZP3 (approximately 83 kDa). Overall, trout VE and mouse ZP proteins share approximately 25% sequence identity and have features in common; these include an N-terminal signal sequence, a ZP domain, a consensus furin cleavage-site, and a C-terminal tail. VEalpha, VEbeta, and ZP1 also have a trefoil or P-type domain upstream of the ZP domain. VEalpha and VEbeta are very similar in sequence (approximately 65% sequence identity) and are related to ZP1 and ZP2, whereas VEgamma is related to ZP3 (approximately 25% sequence identity). Mouse ZP proteins are synthesized and secreted exclusively by growing oocytes in the ovary. Trout VE proteins are synthesized by the liver under hormonal control and transported in the bloodstream to growing oocytes in the ovary. The trout VE is assembled from VEalpha/gamma and VEbeta/gamma heterodimers. The mouse ZP is assembled from ZP2/3 heterodimers and crosslinked by ZP1. Despite approximately 400 million years separating the appearance of trout and mice, and the change from external to internal fertilization and development, trout VE and mouse ZP proteins have many common structural features; as do avian and amphibian egg VE proteins. However, the site of synthesis of trout and mouse egg extracellular coat proteins has changed over time from the liver to the ovary, necessitating some changes in the C-terminal region of the polypeptides that regulates processing, secretion, and assembly of the proteins.     

Complexin I is required for mammalian sperm acrosomal exocytosis

Regulated exocytosis in many cells is controlled by the SNARE complex, whose core includes three proteins that promote membrane fusion. Complexins I and II are highly related cytosolic proteins that bind tightly to the assembled SNARE complex and regulate neuronal exocytosis. Like somatic cells, sperm undergo regulated exocytosis; however, sperm release a single large vesicle, the acrosome, whose release has different characteristics than neuronal exocytosis. Acrosomal release is triggered upon sperm adhesion to the mammalian egg extracellular matrix (zona pellucida) to allow penetration of the egg coat. Membrane fusion occurs at multiple points within the acrosome but how fusion is activated and the formation and progression of fusion points is synchronized is unclear. We show that complexins I and II are found in acrosome-intact mature sperm, bind to SNARE complex proteins, and are not detected in sperm after acrosomal exocytosis (acrosome reaction). Although complexin-I-deficient sperm acrosome-react in response to calcium ionophore, they do not acrosome-react in response to egg zona pellucida proteins and have reduced fertilizing ability, in vitro. Complexin II is present in the complexin-I-deficient sperm and its expression is increased in complexin-I-deficient testes. Therefore, complexin I functions in exocytosis in two related but morphologically distinct secretory processes. Sperm are unusual because they express both complexins I and II but have a unique and specific requirement for complexin I.     

Structural features of the abalone egg extracellular matrix and its role in gamete interaction during fertilization

Abalone eggs are surrounded by a complex extracellular coat that contains three distinct elements: the jelly layer, the vitelline envelope, and the egg surface coat. In this study we used light and electron microscopy to describe these three elements in the red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) and ascribe function to each based on their interactions with sperm. The jelly coat is a spongy matrix that lies at the outermost margin of the egg and consists of variably sized fibers. Sperm pass through this layer with their acrosomes intact and then go on to bind to the vitelline envelope. The vitelline envelope is a multilamellar fibrous layer that appears to trigger the acrosome reaction after sperm binding. Next, sperm release lysin from their acrosomal granules, a nonenzymatic protein that dissolves a hole in the vitelline envelope through which the sperm swims. Sperm then contact the egg surface coat, a network of uniformly sized filaments lying directly above the egg plasma membrane. This layer mediates attachment of sperm, via their acrosomal process, to the egg surface. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

TRIQK, a novel family of small proteins localized to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, is conserved across vertebrates

Here we report a novel small protein that is highly conserved across vertebrates. The protein, which we have named TRIQK, has no homology to any previously reported proteins or functional domains, but all vertebrate homologs of this protein share a characteristic triple repeat of the sequence QXXK/R, as well as a hydrophobic C-terminal region. The Xenopus triqk gene (xTriqk) was isolated in an expression screen on the basis of its ability to cause dramatic changes in cell size and nuclear size and morphology in developing embryos. The Xenopus and mouse triqk genes are broadly expressed throughout embryogenesis, and mtriqk is also generally expressed in mouse adult tissues. TRIQK proteins are localized to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Depletion of endogenous xTRIQK protein in Xenopus embryos causes no detectable morphological or functional changes in tadpoles.     

Germ cell sex prior to meiosis in the rainbow trout

Germ cells make two major decisions when they move from an indeterminate state to their final stage of gamete production. One decision is sexual commitment for sperm or egg production, and the other is to maintain mitotic division or entry into meiosis. It is unclear whether the two decisions are made as a single event or separate events, because there has been no evidence for the presence of germ cell sex prior to meiosis. Here we report direct evidence in the fish rainbow trout that gonia have distinct sexuality. We show that dazl expression occurs in both male and female gonia but exhibits differential intracellular distribution. More strikingly, we show that boule is highly expressed in male gonia but absent in female gonia. Therefore, mitotic gonia possess sex, sperm/egg decision and mitosis/meiosis decision are two independent events, and sperm/egg decision precedes mitosis/meiosis decision in rainbow trout, making this organism a unique vertebrate model for mechanistic understanding of germ cell sex differentiation and relationship between the two decisions.     

cDNA cloning and sequence analysis of the Xenopus laevis egg envelope glycoprotein gp43

The glycoproteins of the Xenopus laevis egg envelope function in fertilization and development. As the unfertilizable coelomic egg transits the pars recta region of the oviduct, it is converted to a fertilizable egg by limited proteolysis of the envelope glycoprotein gp43 to gp41. This conversion is caused by an oviductally secreted serine active site protease, oviductin. We cloned a cDNA for gp43 from an oocyte cDNA library. The cDNA encoded a 454 amino acid protein homologous to the ZPC family of glycoproteins previously shown to be present in mammalian and fish egg envelopes. Conserved ZPC domains and motifs present in the Xenopus sequence included a signal peptide sequence, an N-linked glycosylation site, and 12 aligned Cys residues. In mammalian and Xenopus sequences, a furin-like (convertase) site and a C-terminal transmembrane domain were present reflecting the biosynthesis of ZPC in these species via the secretory glycoprotein pathway. However, fish envelope glycoproteins lack these sequences since they are synthesized via a different route (in the liver, transported to the ovary, and assembled into the egg envelope surrounding the oocyte). Consensus amino acid residues were identified by sequence comparisons of seven ZPC family members; 19% of the amino acid residues were invariant and 48% of the residues were identical in at least four of the seven sequences. The consensus sequence was used to make structure-fertilization function predictions for this phylogenetically conserved family of glycoproteins.     

Cloning and comparative sequence analysis of PUM1 and PUM2 genes,human members of the Pumilio family of RNA-binding proteins

Drosophila gene Pumilio (Pum) is a founder member of an evolutionarily conserved family of RNA-binding proteins that are present from yeast to mammals, and act as translational repressors during embryo development and cell differentiation. The human genome contains two Pumilio related genes, PUM1 and PUM2, that encode 127 and 114 kDa proteins with evolutionarily highly conserved Pum RNA-binding domain (86 and 88% homology with the fly Pum protein). PUM1 and PUM2 proteins share 83% overall similarity, with RNA-binding domain being 91% identical. Both PUM1 and PUM2 show relatively widespread and mostly overlapping expression in human tissues, and are very large genes with highly conserved gene structure. PUM1 consists of 22 exons, spanning about 150 kb on chromosome 1p35.2, whereas PUM2 consists of 20 exons and spans at least 80 kb on chromosome 2p23-24. Extremely high evolutionary conservation of the RNA-binding domain from yeast to humans, and conserved function of Pumilio proteins in invertebrates and lower vertebrates suggest that mammalian Pumilio proteins could also play an important role in translational regulation of embryogenesis and cell development and differentiation.