Effects of angiopoietins-1 and -2 on the receptor tyrosine kinase Tie2 are differentially regulated at the endothelial cell surface

Angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) and Ang2 are ligands for the receptor tyrosine kinase Tie2. Structural data suggest that the two ligands bind Tie2 similarly. However, in endothelial cells Ang1 activates Tie2 whereas Ang2 can act as an apparent antagonist. In addition, each ligand exhibits distinct kinetics of release following binding. These observations suggest that additional factors influence function and binding of angiopoietins with receptors in the cellular context. Previous work has shown that Ang1 binding and activation of Tie2 are inhibited by Tie1, a related receptor that complexes with Tie2 in cells. In this study we have investigated binding of Ang1 and Ang2 to Tie2 in endothelial cells. In contrast to Ang1, binding of Ang2 to Tie2 was found to be not affected by Tie1. Neither PMA-induced Tie1 ectodomain cleavage nor suppression of Tie1 expression by siRNA affected the ability of Ang2 to bind Tie2. Analysis of the level of Tie1 co-immunoprecipitating with angiopoietin-bound Tie2 demonstrated that Ang2 can bind Tie2 in Tie2:Tie1 complexes whereas Ang1 preferentially binds non-complexed Tie2. Stimulation of Tie1 ectodomain cleavage did not increase the agonist activity of Ang2 for Tie2. Similarly, the Tie2-agonist activity of Ang2 was not affected by siRNA suppression of Tie1 expression. Consistent with previous reports, loss of Tie1 ectodomain enhanced the agonist activity of Ang1 for Tie2. Importantly, Ang2 was still able to antagonize the elevated Ang1-activation of Tie2 that occurs on Tie1 ectodomain loss. Together these data demonstrate that Ang1 and Ang2 bind differently to Tie2 at the cell surface and this is controlled by Tie1. This differential regulation of angiopoietin binding allows control of Tie2 activation response to Ang1 without affecting Ang2 agonist activity and maintains the ability of Ang2 to antagonize even the enhanced Ang1 activation of Tie2 that occurs on loss of Tie1 ectodomain. This provides a mechanism by which signalling through Tie2 can be modified by stimuli in the cellular microenvironment.     

Lipid rafts serve as signaling platforms for Tie2 receptor tyrosine kinase in vascular endothelial cells

The Tie2 receptor tyrosine kinase plays a pivotal role in vascular and hematopoietic development. The major intracellular signaling systems activated by Tie2 in response to Angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) include the Akt and Erk1/2 pathways. Here, we investigated the role of cholesterol-rich plasma membrane microdomains (lipid rafts) in Tie2 regulation. Tie2 could not be detected in the lipid raft fraction of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) unless they were first stimulated with Ang1. After stimulation, a minor fraction of Tie2 associated tightly with the lipid rafts. Treatment of HUVECs with the lipid raft disrupting agent methyl-β-cyclodextrin selectively inhibited Ang1-induced Akt phosphorylation, but not Erk1/2 phosphorylation. It has been reported that inhibition of FoxO activity is an important mechanism for Ang1-stimulated Tie2-mediated endothelial function. Consistent with this, we found that phosphorylation of FoxO mediated by Tie2 activation was attenuated by lipid raft disruption. Therefore, we propose that lipid rafts serve as signaling platforms for Tie2 receptor tyrosine kinase in vascular endothelial cells, especially for the Akt pathway.     

Intrinsic differences in the mechanisms of Tie2 binding to angiopoietins exploited by directed evolution to create an Ang2-selective ligand trap

Angiopoietins Ang1 and Ang2 are secreted ligands for the endothelial receptor tyrosine kinase Tie2 essential for vascular development and maintenance. Ang1 acts as an agonist to maintain normal vessel function, whereas Ang2 acts as a Tie2 antagonist. Ang2 is increased in macular edema, sepsis, and other conditions, in which it blocks Ang1-mediated signaling, causing vascular dysfunction and contributing to disease pathology. Therefore, Ang2 is an attractive therapeutic target. Previously, we reported a Tie2 ectodomain variant that selectively binds Ang2 and acts as soluble ligand trap to sequester Ang2; however, the mechanism of Ang2-binding selectivity is unknown. In the present study, we used directed protein evolution to enhance Ang2-binding affinity of this Tie2 ectodomain trap. We examined contributions of individual residues in the ligand-binding interface of Tie2 to Ang1 and Ang2 binding. Surprisingly, different combinations of Tie2 residues were found to bind each ligand, with hydrophobic residues binding both ligands and polar residues contributing selectively to either Ang1 or Ang2 binding. Our analysis also identified a single Tie2 residue, His168, with a pivotal role in both Ang1 and Ang2 binding, enabling competition between binding ligands. In summary, this study reports an enhanced-affinity Ang2-selective ligand trap with potential for therapeutic development and reveals the mechanism behind its selectivity. It also provides the first analysis of contributions of individual Tie2 residues to Ang1 and Ang2 binding and identifies selectivity-determining residues that could be targeted in the future design of small molecule and other inhibitors of Ang2 for the treatment of vascular dysfunction.     

Notoginsenoside R1 activates the Ang2/Tie2 pathway to promote angiogenesis

BackgroundTherapeutic angiogenesis is a novel strategy for the treatment of ischemic diseases that involves promotion of angiogenesis in ischemic tissues via the use of proangiogenic agents. However, effective proangiogenic drugs that activate the Ang2/Tie2 signaling pathway remain scarce.PurposeWe aimed to investigate the proangiogenic activity of notoginsenoside R1 (NR1) isolated from total saponins of Panax notoginseng with regard to activation of the Ang2/Tie2 signaling pathway.MethodsWe examined the proangiogenic effects of NR1 by assessing the effects of NR1 on the proliferation, migration, invasion and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The aortic ring assay and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor inhibitor (VRI)-induced vascular regression in the zebrafish model were used to confirm the proangiogenic effects of NR1 ex vivo and in vivo. Furthermore, the molecular mechanism was investigated by Western blot analysis.ResultsWe found that NR1 promoted the proliferation, mobility and tube formation of HUVECs in vitro. NR1 also increased the number of sprouting vessels in rat aortic rings and rescued VRI-induced vascular regression in zebrafish. NR1-induced angiogenesis was dependent on Tie2 receptor activation mediated by increased autocrine Ang2 in HUVECs, and inhibition of the Ang2/Tie2 pathway abrogated the proangiogenic effects of NR1.ConclusionsOur results suggest that NR1 promotes angiogenesis by activating the Ang2/Tie2 signaling pathway. Thus, NR1-induced activation of the Ang2/Tie2 pathway is an effective proangiogenic approach. NR1 may be useful agent for the treatment of ischemic diseases.     

Differential function of Tie2 at cell-cell contacts and cell-substratum contacts regulated by angiopoietin-1

Tie2 belongs to the receptor tyrosine kinase family and functions as a receptor for Angiopoietin-1 (Ang1). Gene-targeting analyses of either Ang1 or Tie2 in mice reveal a critical role of Ang1-Tie2 signalling in developmental vascular formation. It remains elusive how the Tie2 signalling pathway plays distinct roles in both vascular quiescence and angiogenesis. We demonstrate here that Ang1 bridges Tie2 at cell-cell contacts, resulting in trans-association of Tie2 in the presence of cell-cell contacts. In clear contrast, in isolated cells, extracellular matrix-bound Ang1 locates Tie2 at cell-substratum contacts. Furthermore, Tie2 activated at cell-cell or cell-substratum contacts leads to preferential activation of Akt and Erk, respectively. Microarray analyses and real-time PCR validation clearly show the differential gene expression profile in vascular endothelial cells upon Ang1 stimulation in the presence or absence of cell-cell contacts, implying downstream signalling is dependent upon the spatial localization of Tie2.     

Angiopoietins assemble distinct Tie2 signalling complexes in endothelial cell-cell and cell-matrix contacts

The receptor tyrosine kinase Tie2, and its activating ligand Angiopoietin-1 (Ang1), are required for vascular remodelling and vessel integrity, whereas Ang2 may counteract these functions. However, it is not known how Tie2 transduces these different signals. Here, we show that Ang1 induces unique Tie2 complexes in mobile and confluent endothelial cells. Matrix-bound Ang1 induced cell adhesion, motility and Tie2 activation in cell-matrix contacts that became translocated to the trailing edge in migrating endothelial cells. In contrast, in contacting cells Ang1 induced Tie2 translocation to cell-cell contacts and the formation of homotypic Tie2-Tie2 trans-associated complexes that included the vascular endothelial phosphotyrosine phosphatase, leading to inhibition of paracellular permeability. Distinct signalling proteins were preferentially activated by Tie2 in the cell-matrix and cell-cell contacts, where Ang2 inhibited Ang1-induced Tie2 activation. This novel type of cellular microenvironment-dependent receptor tyrosine kinase activation may explain some of the effects of angiopoietins in angiogenesis and vessel stabilization.     

Oligomerized Tie2 localizes to clathrin-coated pits in response to angiopoietin-1

The tyrosine kinase receptor Tie2 is expressed on endothelial cells, and together with its ligand angiopoietin-1 (Ang1), is important for angiogenesis and vascular stability. Upon activation by Ang1, Tie2 is rapidly internalized and degraded, a mechanism most likely necessary to attenuate receptor activity. Using immunogold electron microscopy, we show that on the surface of endothelial cells, Tie2 is arranged in variably sized clusters containing dimers and higher order oligomers. Clusters of Tie2 were expressed on the apical and basolateral plasma membranes, and on the tips of microvilli. Upon activation by Ang1, Tie2 co-localized with the clathrin heavy chain at the apical and basolateral plasma membranes and within endothelial cells indicating that Tie2 internalizes through clathrin-coated pits. Inhibiting cellular endocytosis by depleting cellular potassium or by acidifying the cytosol blocked the internalization of Tie2 in response to Ang1. Our results suggest that one pathway mediating the internalization of Tie2 in response to Ang1 is through clathrin-coated pits. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Immunohistochemical demonstration of Angiopoietin-2 in lymphatic vascular development

The cellular expression of Angiopoietin-2 (Ang2) was studied during lymphatic development in mouse by immunohistochemistry and compared to that of lymphatic endothelial markers. At the earliest stage of lymphvasculogenesis, Prox1-identified lymphatic precursor cells of the cardinal vein displayed an intense immunoreaction for Ang2 in their cytoplasm, implying that Ang2 may adjust lymphatic specification and sprouting from the veins under the control of Prox1. Thereafter, Ang2 was constantly expressed in Prox1 and/or LYVE-1-immunopositive endothelial cells of lymphatic sacs and vessels, ranging from lymphatic capillaries to collectors, throughout embryonic and neonatal development, and the lymphatic endothelial cells simultaneously exhibited immunoreactivity to Tie2, a primary receptor for angiopoietins. These results suggest that lymphatic endothelial cells may regulate lymphatic development via their own Ang2-Tie2 signaling. Ang2 is further immunolocalized in the developing blood vessels including hepatic sinusoids, adrenal medullary vasculature and postnatal pulmonary vessels, thereby indicating that the blood vessels, which undergo vascular remodeling and sudden alteration of blood flow during the development, are also likely to express Ang2. The present study is first to demonstrate Ang2 expression in the lymphatic endothelial cells during development, and consequently Ang2 is regarded as a molecular profile of the developing lymphatic endothelial cells required for lymphatic vascular organization.     

Ang2、Tie2基因的RNA干扰及其在体外抑制血管生成的作用

目的：探讨应用RNA干扰（RNA interference,RNAi）技术沉默Ang2、Tie2基因及其在体外抑制血管生成的研究,为将来进一步进行抑制肿瘤血管生成的动物实验研究奠定基础,为肿瘤的基因治疗提供实验依据。方法：用pSilencer 1.0-U6-Ang2/Tie2-siRNA重组质粒转染人脐静脉内皮细胞(HUVECs),采用RT PCR检测各组HUVECs Ang2、Tie2的mRNA表达状况。应用体外血管生成的三维培养模型研究转染后的HUVECs在体外形成血管样结构的情况。结果：pSilencer 1.0-U6-Ang2/Tie2-siRNA重组质粒转染HUVECs后,RT-PCR检测结果显示: Ang2、Tie2基因mRNA的表达水平均受到明显抑制（P<0.05）,并且siRNA的2条重组质粒之间均无明显差别（P>0.05）。转染后的HUVECs在体外三维培养模型中血管样结构形成的数量和长度均明显减少（P<0.05）,表明血管生成受到明显抑制。结论：Ang2-siRNA、Tie2-siRNA能够抑制HUVECs中Ang2和Tie2的mRNA表达,从而在体外抑制血管生成。     

Angiopoietin-2 is required for postnatal angiogenesis and lymphatic patterning,and only the latter role is rescued by Angiopoietin-1

VEGF and Angiopoietin-1 requisitely collaborate during blood vessel development. While Angiopoietin-1 obligately activates its Tie2 receptor, Angiopoietin-2 can activate Tie2 on some cells, while it blocks Tie2 activation on others. Our analysis of mice lacking Angiopoietin-2 reveals that Angiopoietin-2 is dispensable for embryonic vascular development but is requisite for subsequent angiogenic remodeling. Unexpectedly, mice lacking Angiopoietin-2 also exhibit major lymphatic vessel defects. Genetic rescue with Angiopoietin-1 corrects the lymphatic, but not the angiogenesis, defects, suggesting that Angiopoietin-2 acts as a Tie2 agonist in the former setting, but as an antagonist in the latter setting. Our studies define a vascular growth factor whose primary role is in postnatal angiogenic remodeling and also demonstrate that members of the VEGF and Angiopoietin families collaborate during development of the lymphatic vasculature.     

Increasing Ang1/Tie2 expression by simvastatin treatment induces vascular stabilization and neuroblast migration after stroke

In this study, we tested the hypothesis that the Angiopoietin 1 (Ang1)/Tie2 pathway mediates simvastatin-induced vascular integrity and migration of neuroblasts after stroke. Rats were subjected to 2 hrs of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) and treated, starting 1 day after stroke with or without simvastatin (1 mg/kg, daily) for 7 days. Simvastatin treatment significantly decreased blood–brain barrier (BBB) leakage and concomitantly, increased Ang1, Tie2 and Occludin expression in the ischaemic border (IBZ) compared to the MCAo control group. Simvastatin also significantly increased doublecortin (DCX, a marker of migrating neuroblasts) expression in the IBZ compared to control MCAo rats. DCX was highly expressed around vessels. To further investigate the signalling pathway of simvastatin-induced vascular stabilization and angiogenesis, rat brain microvascular endothelial cell (RBMEC) culture was employed. The data show that simvastatin treatment of RBMEC increased Ang1 and Tie2 gene and protein expression and promoted phosphorylated-Tie2 activity. Simvastatin significantly increased endothelial capillary tube formation, an index of angiogenesis, compared to non-treated control. Inhibition of Ang1 or knockdown of Tie2 gene expression in endothelial cells significantly attenuated simvastatin-induced capillary tube formation. In addition, simvastatin significantly increased subventricular zone (SVZ) explant cell migration compared to non-treatment control. Inhibition of Ang1 significantly attenuated simvastatin-induced SVZ cell migration. Simvastatin treatment of stroke increases Ang1/Tie2 expression and thereby reduces BBB leakage and promotes vascular stabilization. Ang1/Tie2 expression induced by simvastatin treatment promotes neuroblast micro-vascular coupling after stroke.     

Angiopoietins-1 and -2 are both capable of mediating endothelial PAF synthesis: intracellular signalling pathways

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is the only angiogenic growth factor capable of inducing an inflammatory response and we have recently demonstrated that its inflammatory effect is mediated by the endothelial synthesis of platelet-activating factor (PAF). Recently discovered, Ang1 and Ang2, upon binding to Tie2 receptor, modulate vascular permeability and integrity, contributing to angiogenesis. Ang1 was initially identified as a Tie2 agonist whereas Ang2 can behave as a context-dependent Tie2 agonist or antagonist. We sought to determine if Ang1 and/or Ang2 could modulate PAF synthesis in bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC) and if so, through which intracellular signalling pathways. Herein, we report that Ang1 and Ang2 (1 nM) are both capable of mediating a rapid Tie2 phosphorylation and a rapid, progressive and sustained endothelial PAF synthesis maximal within 4 h (1695% and 851% increase, respectively). Angiopoietin-mediated endothelial PAF synthesis requires the activation of the p38 and p42/44 MAPKs, PI3K intracellular signalling pathways, and a secreted phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2)-V). Furthermore, angiopoietin-mediated PAF synthesis is partly driven by a relocalization of endogenous VEGF to the cell surface membrane. Our results demonstrate that the angiopoietins constitute another class of angiogenic factors capable of mediating PAF synthesis which may contribute to proinflammatory activities.     

The Angiopoietin ligands and Tie receptors: potential diagnostic biomarkers of vascular disease

Abstract

The Angiopoietin-1 (Angpt1)/Tie2 signaling pathway is important in regulating vascular function. Angpt1-induced Tie2 activation promotes vascular endothelial cell survival and reduces vascular leakage. Angiopoietin-2 (Angpt2), a weak agonist/antagonist of Tie2, opposes and regulates Angpt1 action. The Tie family of receptor tyrosine kinases, Tie2 and Tie1, exist as either homo-or heterodimers. The molecular complex between the receptors is also crucial in controlling Angpt1 signaling; hence, the molecular balance between Angpt1:Angpt2 and Tie2:Tie1 is important in determining endothelial integrity and vascular stability. This review presents evidence of the change observed in the Angiopoietin/Tie molecules in various pathophysiological conditions and discusses the potential clinical applications of these molecules in vascular complications.     

Multiple angiopoietin recombinant proteins activate the Tie1 receptor tyrosine kinase and promote its interaction with Tie2

The Tie1 receptor tyrosine kinase was isolated over a decade ago, but so far no ligand has been found to activate this receptor. Here, we have examined the potential of angiopoietins, ligands for the related Tie2 receptor, to mediate Tie1 activation. We show that a soluble Ang1 chimeric protein, COMP-Ang1, stimulates Tie1 phosphorylation in endothelial cells with similar kinetics and angiopoietin dose dependence when compared with Tie2. The phosphorylation of overexpressed Tie1 was weakly induced by COMP-Ang1 also in transfected cells that do not express Tie2. When cotransfected, Tie2 formed heteromeric complexes with Tie1, enhanced Tie1 activation, and induced phosphorylation of a kinase-inactive Tie1 in a ligand-dependent manner. Tie1 phosphorylation was also induced by native Ang1 and Ang4, although less efficiently than with COMP-Ang1. In conclusion, we show that Tie1 phosphorylation is induced by multiple angiopoietin proteins and that the activation is amplified via Tie2. These results should be important in dissecting the signal transduction pathways and biological functions of Tie1.     

Expression of the receptor tyrosine kinase Tie2 in neoplastic glial cells is associated with integrin beta1-dependent adhesion to the extracellular matrix

The abnormal function of tyrosine kinase receptors is a hallmark of malignant gliomas. Tie2 receptor tyrosine kinase is a specific endothelial cell receptor whose function is positively regulated by angiopoietin 1 (Ang1). Recently, Tie2 has also been found in the nonvascular compartment of several tumors, including leukemia as well as breast, gastric, and thyroid cancers. There is, however, little information on the function of the Ang1/Tie2 pathway in the non-stromal cells within human tumors. We found that surgical glioblastoma specimens contained a subpopulation of Tie2+/CD31- and Tie2+/GFAP+ cells, suggesting that Tie2 is indeed expressed outside the vascular compartment of gliomas. Furthermore, analysis of a tissue array consisting of 116 human glioma samples showed that Tie2 expression in the neoplastic glial cells was significantly associated with progression from a lower to higher grade. Importantly, Ang1 stimulation of Tie2+ glioma cells resulted in increased adherence of the cells to collagen I and IV, suggesting that Tie2 regulates glioma cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix. Conversely, the down-regulation of Tie2 levels by small interference RNA or the addition of soluble Tie2 abrogated the Ang1-mediated effect on cell adhesion. In studying the expression of cell adhesion molecules, we found that Tie2 activation was related to the up-regulation of integrin beta1 levels and the formation of focal adhesions. These results, together with the reported fact that malignant gliomas express high levels of Ang1, suggest the existence of an autocrine loop in malignant gliomas and that a Tie2-dependent pathway modulates cell-to-extracellular matrix adhesion, providing new insights into the highly infiltrative phenotype of human gliomas.     

Localization of Tie2 and phospholipase D in endothelial caveolae is involved in angiopoietin-1-induced MEK/ERK phosphorylation and migration in endothelial cells

Angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) and its receptor, Tie2, play critical roles in blood vessel formation. Ang1 triggers a variety of signaling events in endothelial cells leading to vasculogenic and angiogenic processes. However, the underlying mechanism for Ang1/Tie2 signaling is not fully understood. Here, we show that Tie2 and phospholipase D (PLD) are localized in the caveolae, specialized subdomains of the endothelial cell plasma membrane enriched with signaling molecules. Interestingly, Ang1 increased PLD activities in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Ang1-induced MEK/ERK activation was abrogated when PLD was inhibited, suggesting that PLD mediates Ang1-induced MEK/ERK activation. Moreover, PLD inhibitor, 1-butanol, inhibited Ang1-induced endothelial cell migration. Our results indicate that: (1) caveolae may be the platform for Tie2/PLD association in endothelial cells; (2) PLD is a new mediator of Ang1/Tie2-induced signaling pathway, and it participates in MAPK activation and endothelial cell migration.     

Tie2受体研究进展及其在抗肿瘤治疗中的应用

Tie2是胚胎血管发育和肿瘤血管形成都需要的内皮细胞酪氨酸激酶受体,血管生成素(Ang)是其配体。正常成人组织中,Ang／Tie2受体水平较低,用于维持成熟的血管结构;一般癌组织中Ang／Tie2的表达较为活跃。本综述了Ang／Tie2的结构和功能研究的最新进展,Ang／Tie2在血管形成中的重要调节作用,以及可溶性Tie2在治疗肿瘤方面的前景。     

Temporal Changes of Angiopoietins and Tie2 Expression in Rat Lungs after Monocrotaline-Induced Pulmonary Hypertension

Angiogenic factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are implicated in pulmonary hypertension (PH). However, the pathway of angiogenic factor-mediated pathologic angiogenesis in PH remains unclear. In this study, we evaluated the temporal expression of angiopoietin (Ang) 1, Ang2, and their receptor (Tie2) as well as VEGF, endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), inducible NOS (iNOS), and heme oxygenase 1 (HO1) in the monocrotaline-induced PH model. Histologic evaluation showed pathologic vascular remodeling in the arteries of lung sections 1 wk after monocrotaline treatment. Protein levels of Ang1, Ang2, eNOS, iNOS, HO1, and VEGF were increased 1 wk after monocrotaline treatment but Tie2 protein levels were decreased 2 wk afterward. These results suggest that Ang2 mediates vascular remodeling in PH by decreasing Tie2 expression. Therefore, the Ang–Tie2 system may play a role in the pathophysiology of PH.Abbreviations: Ang, angiopoietin; eNOS, endothelial nitric oxide synthase; HO1, heme oxygenase 1; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; PH, pulmonary hypertension; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factorPulmonary hypertension (PH) is a disease characterized by pathologic angiogenesis caused by diffuse smooth muscle cell hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the distal pulmonary vasculature, resulting in obliteration of small pulmonary arterioles.¹³ Vascular remodeling is governed by the interaction of several angiogenic factors on endothelial and smooth muscle cells. Vascular remodeling requires complex, multistep signaling pathways and a high degree of spatial and temporal coordination among endothelial and smooth muscle cells.²⁹ However, the precise mechanisms of vascular remodeling at the cellular and molecular levels are not completely defined.The angiopoietin (Ang) family and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are 2 types of vascular regulatory molecules that have been the subject of intense investigation in both physiologic and pathologic generation of blood vessels.^2,38 Members of the Ang family have opposing effects on receptor activation, with Ang1 stimulating Tie2 and Ang2 antagonizing this stimulation.^3,8,22 In particular, Ang1 plays an important role in the assembly of newly formed vasculature and in the maintenance of vascular integrity.^7,14,36 In contrast, Ang2 antagonizes the activation of Tie2 by Ang1 and causes endothelial cell apoptosis and vascular regression.²² The functions of Ang2 appear to be more complex than those of Ang1, in that Ang2 binds to the Tie2 receptor, blocking Ang1–Tie2 signaling and acting as a vessel-destabilizing factor.²⁶ However, prolonged exposure of endothelial cells to Ang2 activates Tie2 signaling.¹⁶ Thus, the precise roles of Ang2 during the development of PH are not well understood. Tie2 is a receptor tyrosine kinase that is expressed principally on vascular endothelium and that plays a role in integrity and survival of endothelial cells.^27,30 Disrupting Tie2 function in mice results in embryonic lethality with defects in embryonic vasculature.¹¹Neither Ang1 nor Ang2 alone can trigger an angiogenic response, but both enhance angiogenesis or induce vascular remodeling, depending on the presence of VEGF or other angiogenic factors. Nitric oxide is produced by endothelial cells through the action of nitric oxide synthase (NOS). Northern blot analysis of hypoxic rat lungs showed significantly increased mRNA levels for both endothelial NOS (eNOS) and inducible NOS (iNOS).¹⁸ Increased NOS activity coincided with the beginning of the vascular remodeling process during chronic hypoxia.³⁷ Hypoxia and nitric oxide stimulate VEGF production and induce HO1 expression in vascular tissue.¹⁰ In addition, several studies have shown that VEGF works in conjunction with other angiogenic factors to produce a stable and functional microvasculature.^21,35The purpose of the present study was to demonstrate the temporal changes of several angiogenic factors during the development of PH induced by treatment of rats with monocrotaline. This research was focused on the Ang–Tie2 system and other angiogenic factors and suggested that this system plays an important role in modulating vascular remodeling during PH.