Membrane fluidity controls redox-regulated cold stress responses in cyanobacteria

Membrane fluidity is the important regulator of cellular responses to changing ambient temperature. Bacteria perceive cold by the transmembrane histidine kinases that sense changes in thickness of the cytoplasmic membrane due to its rigidification. In the cyanobacterium Synechocystis, about a half of cold-responsive genes is controlled by the light-dependent transmembrane histidine kinase Hik33, which also partially controls the responses to osmotic, salt, and oxidative stress. This implies the existence of some universal, but yet unknown signal that triggers adaptive gene expression in response to various stressors. Here we selectively probed the components of photosynthetic machinery and functionally characterized the thermodynamics of cyanobacterial photosynthetic membranes with genetically altered fluidity. We show that the rate of oxidation of the quinone pool (PQ), which interacts with both photosynthetic and respiratory electron transport chains, depends on membrane fluidity. Inhibitor-induced stimulation of redox changes in PQ triggers cold-induced gene expression. Thus, the fluidity-dependent changes in the redox state of PQ may universally trigger cellular responses to stressors that affect membrane properties.     

Histidine kinase Hik33 is an important participant in cold-signal transduction in cyanobacteria

Acclimation of living organisms to cold stress begins with the perception and transduction of the cold signal. However, traditional methods failed to identify the sensors and transducers of cold stress. Therefore, we combined systematic mutagenesis of potential sensors and transducers with DNA microarray analysis in an attempt to identify these components in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. We identified histidine kinase Hik33 as a potential cold sensor and found that Hik33 participates in the regulation of the expression of more than 60% of the cold-inducible genes. Further study revealed that Hik33 is also involved in the perception of hyperosmotic stress and salt stress and transduction of the signals. Complexity of responses to cold and other environmental stresses is discussed.     

Proteomic study of the impact of Hik33 mutation in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 under normal and salt stress conditions

Cyanobacteria are the only prokaryotes possessing plasma, thylakoid, and outer membranes. The plasma membrane of a cyanobacterial cell is essential for the biogenesis of cyanobacterial photosystems and serves as a barrier against environmental stress. We previously identified dozens of salt-responsive proteins in the plasma membrane of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Five histidine kinases (Hiks) including Hik33 were also proposed to be involved in the perception of salt stress in Synechocystis. In this study, we analyzed proteomic profiles of the plasma membrane from a hik33-knockout mutant (ΔHik33) under normal and salt-stress conditions. Using 2D-DIGE followed by mass spectrometry analysis, we identified 26 differentially expressed proteins in ΔHik33 mutant cells. Major changes, due to the Hik33 mutation, included the substrate-binding proteins of ABC transporters, such as GgtB and FutA1, regulatory proteins including MorR and Rre13, as well as several hypothetical proteins. Under salt-stress conditions, the Hik33 mutation reduced levels of 7 additional proteins, such as NrtA, nitrate/sulfonate/bicarbonate-binding protein and LexA, and enhanced levels of 9 additional proteins including SphX. These observations suggest a substantial rearrangement in the plasma membrane proteome of Synechocystis due to the loss of hik33. Furthermore, a comprehensive molecular network was revealed in ΔHik33 mutant coping with salt stress.     

Characterization of the subdomains in the N-terminal region of histidine kinase Hik33 in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Histidine kinase Hik33 responds to a variety of stress conditions and regulates the expression of stress-inducible genes in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. However, the mechanisms of response and regulation remain unknown. Generally, a histidine kinase perceives a specific signal via its N-terminal region. Hik33 has two transmembrane helices, a periplasmic loop, and HAMP and PAS domains in its N-terminal region, all of which might be involved in signal perception. To investigate the functions of these subdomains in vivo, we expressed a chimeric histidine kinase (Hik33n-SphSc) by fusing the N-terminal region of Hik33 with the C-terminal region of a sensory histidine kinase that is activated under phosphate-deficient conditions, SphS. Hik33n-SphSc responded to several stimuli that are perceived by intact Hik33 and regulated expression of the phoA gene for alkaline phosphatase, which is normally regulated under phosphate-deficient conditions by SphS. We introduced genes for modified versions of Hik33n-SphSc into Synechocystis and monitored expression of phoA under standard and stress conditions. Hik33n-SphSc lacking either the transmembrane helices or both the HAMP and PAS domains had no kinase activity, whereas Hik33n-SphSc lacking the HAMP or the PAS domain enhanced expression of phoA. Moreover, variants of Hik33n-SphSc, in which the membrane-localizing region was replaced by those of other histidine kinases, also responded to stress conditions. Thus, transmembrane helices, regardless of sequence, appear to be essential for the function of Hik33, while the HAMP and PAS domains play important roles in regulating kinase activity in vivo.     

Histidine kinases play important roles in the perception and signal transduction of hydrogen peroxide in the cyanobacterium, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen species and, in particular, to hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) has a major impact on all biological systems, including plants and microorganisms. We investigated the H(2)O(2)-inducible expression of genes in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 using genome-wide DNA microarrays. Our systematic screening of a library of mutant lines with defects in histidine kinases (Hiks) by RNA slot-blot hybridization and DNA-microarray analysis suggested that four Hiks, namely, Hik33, Hik34, Hik16 and Hik41, are involved in the perception and transduction of H(2)O(2) signals that regulate the gene expression of 26 of the 77 H(2)O(2)-inducible genes with induction factors higher than 4.0. Among the four Hiks, Hik33 was the main contributor and was responsible for 22 of the 26 H(2)O(2)-inducible genes under the control of the Hiks. By contrast to Hik33, PerR encoding putative peroxide-sensing protein is involved in the regulation of only nine H(2)O(2)-inducible genes.     

Gene-engineered rigidification of membrane lipids enhances the cold inducibility of gene expression in synechocystis

A sudden decrease in ambient temperature induces the expression of a number of genes in poikilothermic organisms. We report here that the cold inducibility of gene expression in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 was enhanced by the rigidification of membrane lipids that was engineered by disruption of genes for fatty acid desaturases. DNA microarray analysis revealed that cold-inducible genes could be divided into three groups according to the effects of the rigidification of membrane lipids. The first group included genes whose expression was not induced by cold in wild-type cells but became strongly cold-inducible upon rigidification of membrane lipids. This group included certain heat-shock genes, genes for subunits of the sulfate transport system, and the hik34 gene for a histidine kinase. The second group consisted of genes whose cold inducibility was moderately enhanced by the rigidification of membrane lipids. Most genes in this group encoded proteins of as yet unknown function. The third group consisted of genes whose cold inducibility was unaffected by the rigidification of membrane lipids. This group included genes for an RNA helicase and an RNA-binding protein. DNA microarray analysis also indicated that the rigidification of membrane lipids had no effect on the heat inducibility of gene expression. Hik33, a cold-sensing histidine kinase, regulated the expression of most genes in the second and third groups but of only a small number of genes in the first group, an observation that suggests that the cold-inducible expression of genes in the first group might be regulated by a cold sensor that remains to be identified.     

Responses to cold shock in cyanobacteria

Acclimation of cyanobacteria to low temperatures involves induction of the expression of several families of genes. Fatty acid desaturases are responsible for maintaining the appropriate fluidity of membranes under stress conditions. RNA-binding proteins, which presumably act analogously to members of the bacterial Csp family of RNA chaperones, are involved in the maintenance of the translation under cold stress. The RNA helicase, whose expression is induced specifically by cold, might be responsible for modifying inappropriate secondary structures of RNAs induced by cold. The cold-inducible family of CIp proteins appears to be involved in the proper folding and processing of proteins. Although genes for cold-inducible proteins in cyanobacteria are heterogeneous, some common features of their untranslated regulatory regions suggest the existence of a common factor(s) that might participate in regulation of the expression of these genes under cold-stress conditions. Studies of the patterns of expression of cold-inducible genes in cyanobacteria have revealed the presence of a cold-sensing mechanism that is associated with their membrane lipids. Available information about cold-shock responses in cyanobacteria and molecular mechanisms of cold acclimation are reviewed in this article.     

Regulation of the desaturation of fatty acids and its role in tolerance to cold and salt stress

The expression of cold-inducible genes is regulated by a two-component system in Synechocystis and Bacillus subtilis. The cold sensors are membrane-bound histidine kinases and it seems likely that they sense and transduce changes in the fluidity of membranes. Desaturation of fatty acids in membrane lipids has been implicated in tolerance to cold and salt stress.     

Regulatory role of membrane fluidity in gene expression and physiological functions

Plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria experience frequent changes in environment. The ability to survive depends on their capacity to acclimate to such changes. In particular, fluctuations in temperature affect the fluidity of cytoplasmic and thylakoid membranes. The molecular mechanisms responsible for the perception of changes in membrane fluidity have not been fully characterized. However, the understanding of the functions of the individual genes for fatty acid desaturases in cyanobacteria and plants led to the directed mutagenesis of such genes that altered the membrane fluidity of cytoplasmic and thylakoid membranes. Characterization of the photosynthetic properties of the transformed cyanobacteria and higher plants revealed that lipid unsaturation is essential for protection of the photosynthetic machinery against environmental stresses, such as strong light, salt stress, and high and low temperatures. The unsaturation of fatty acids enhances the repair of the damaged photosystem II complex under stress conditions. In this review, we summarize the knowledge on the mechanisms that regulate membrane fluidity, on putative sensors that perceive changes in membrane fluidity, on genes that are involved in acclimation to new sets of environmental conditions, and on the influence of membrane properties on photosynthetic functions.     

Slr1122影响Hik12磷酸化并参与调节Synechocystis sp.PCC 6803的色素合成

Synechocystis sp.PCC 6803是一种良好的研究光合作用的模式生物,其中slr1122编码一个250个氨基酸的未知蛋白。据报道Slr1122可能与杂合传感激酶（hybrid sensory kinase）Sll1672（Hik12）相互作用,本研究通过复合物实验证实了Slr1122与Sll1672确实存在相互作用。利用32P标记证明,在加入Slr1122后Hik12的磷酸化受到了明显的影响,推测其可能参与该双组分系统的调控。通过同源双交换,用卡那霉素抗性基因替换slr1122,将slr1122从Synechocystis sp.PCC 6803中敲除,构建了slr1122的缺失体Δslr1122。研究发现在Δslr1122中,编码PSⅡ中核心蛋白D1亚基的slr1181（psbAI）的转录水平明显降低,使PSⅡ光合作用受到影响,导致Δslr1122的生长速率低于野生型（WT）。同时slr1122的缺失使得蓝细菌对光的敏感性增强,在弱光条件下,Δslr1122对光能的利用效率高于WT,其生长速率也较WT高,但与此相反,Δslr1122对强光的耐受力及生长速率则不及WT。Δslr1122体内的藻胆蛋白含量与色素含量均降低,尤其是类胡萝卜素,RT-PCR的结果也显示合成类胡萝卜素过程中的5个关键酶转录水平均下降。这可能是Δslr1122对氧化胁迫变得敏感的原因之一。总之,Slr1122影响杂合传感激酶Hik12磷酸化并参与调节Synechocystis sp.PCC 6803的光合色素合成。     

Identical Hik-Rre systems are involved in perception and transduction of salt signals and hyperosmotic signals but regulate the expression of individual genes to different extents in synechocystis

In previous studies, we characterized five histidine kinases (Hiks) and the cognate response regulators (Rres) that control the expression of approximately 70% of the hyperosmotic stress-inducible genes in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. In the present study, we screened a gene knock-out library of Rres by RNA slot-blot hybridization and with a genome-wide DNA microarray and identified three Hik-Rre systems, namely, Hik33-Rre31, Hik10-Rre3, and Hik16-Hik41-Rre17, as well as another system that included Rre1, that were involved in perception of salt stress and transduction of the signal. We found that these Hik-Rre systems were identical to those that were involved in perception and transduction of the hyperosmotic stress signal. We compared the induction factors of the salt stress- and hyperosmotic stress-inducible genes that are located downstream of each system and found that these genes responded to the two kinds of stress to different respective extents. In addition, the Hik33-Rre31 system regulated the expression of genes that were specifically induced by hyperosmotic stress, whereas the system that included Rre1 regulated the expression of one or two genes that were specifically induced either by salt stress or by hyperosmotic stress. Our observations suggest that the perception of salt and hyperosmotic stress by the Hik-Rre systems is complex and that salt stress and hyperosmotic stress are perceived as distinct signals by the Hik-Rre systems.     

Synthesis and production of unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in yeast: current state and perspectives

Recently, many genes involved in the formation of unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were isolated. In most cases, their activities were confirmed by expressing them in the well-studied model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae because its fatty acid compositions are very simple and it does not contain PUFAs. Taking advantage of its genetic tractability and increasing wealth of accessible data, many groups are attempting to produce various useful fatty acids in the model yeasts, mainly in S. cerevisiae. This review describes typical such examples including a very recent study on the expression of a fatty acid hydroxylase gene in fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Furthermore, the impact of the genetically engineered alteration of fatty acid composition on the stress tolerance is presented because unsaturated fatty acids have crucial roles in membrane fluidity and signaling processes. Lastly, recent attempts at increasing lipid content in S. cerevisiae are discussed.     

Gene expression analysis of cold and freeze stress in Baker's yeast

We used mRNA differential display to assess yeast gene expression under cold or freeze shock stress conditions. We found both up- and down-regulation of genes, although repression was more common. We identified and sequenced several cold-induced genes exhibiting the largest differences. We confirmed, by Northern blotting, the specificity of the response for TPI1, which encodes triose-phosphate isomerase; ERG10, the gene for acetoacetyl coenzyme A thiolase; and IMH1, which encodes a protein implicated in protein transport. These genes also were induced under other stress conditions, suggesting that this cold response is mediated by a general stress mechanism. We determined the physiological significance of the cold-induced expression change of these genes in two baker's yeast strains with different sensitivities to freeze stress. The mRNA level of TPI1 and ERG10 genes was higher in freeze-stressed than in control samples of the tolerant strain. In contrast, both genes were repressed in frozen cells of the sensitive strain. Next, we examined the effects of ERG10 overexpression on cold and freeze-thaw tolerance. Growth of wild-type cells at 10 degrees C was not affected by high ERG10 expression. However, YEpERG10 transformant cells exhibited increased freezing tolerance. Consistent with this, cells of an erg10 mutant strain showed a clear phenotype of cold and freeze sensitivity. These results give support to the idea that a cause-and-effect relationship between differentially expressed genes and cryoresistance exists in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and open up the possibility of design strategies to improve the freeze tolerance of baker's yeast.     

Gene identification and functional characterization of a Δ12 fatty acid desaturase in Tetrahymena thermophila and its influence in homeoviscous adaptation to low temperature

Homeoviscous adaptation in poikilotherms is based in the regulation of the level of desaturation of fatty acids, variation in phospholipids head groups and sterol content in the membrane lipids, in order to maintain the membrane fluidity in response to changes in environmental temperature. Increased proportion of unsaturated fatty acids is thought to be the main response to low-temperature acclimation, which is mostly achieved by fatty acid desaturases. Genome analysis of the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila and a gene knockout approach has allowed us to identify one Δ12 FAD and to study its activity in the original host and in a yeast heterologous expression system. The “PUFA index” -relative content of polyunsaturated fatty acids compared to the sum of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acid content- was ~57% lower at 15 °C and 35 °C in the Δ12 FAD gene knockout strain (KOΔ12) compared to WT strain. We characterized the role of T. thermophila Δ12 FAD on homeoviscous adaptation and analyzed its involvement in cellular growth, cold stress response, and membrane fluidity, as well as its expression pattern during temperature shifts. Although these alterations allowed normal growth in the KOΔ12 strain at 30 °C or higher temperatures, growth was impaired at temperatures of 20 °C or lower, where homeoviscous adaptation is impaired. These results stress the importance of Δ12 FAD in the regulation of cold adaptation processes, as well as the suitability of T. thermophila as a valuable model to investigate the regulation of membrane lipids and evolutionary conservation and divergence of the underlying mechanisms.