Landscape evaluation for ecosystem planning

Landscape evaluation is important in the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development. The objective of this paper is to review and explore methods for evaluation of landscapes for ecosystem planning. Ecosystem planning is the process of land use decision-making that considers organisms and processes that characterize the ecosystem as a whole. Risk assessments, precautionary principles, adaptive management and scenario approaches are adopted to cope with the uncertainty of nature, which is an obstacle in ecosystem planning. Special attention is needed in the analysis of status and troubleshooting in the planning scheme, which is a selection of the appropriate approach and model to find problems in the present situation. There are two approaches to set targets in ecosystem planning, the species approach and the ecosystem approach. The species approach aims to protect particular species, and the ecosystem approach aims to protect total ecosystems including the species. In Europe, ecotope or biotope mapping has been developed in ecosystem planning. An ecotope is often identified by vegetation that represents a group of wildlife, but many species require combinations of different ecotopes. Landscapes have come to be recognized as a unit for ecosystem planning. Potential assessment is a method to estimate a potential of a local space or a landscape to realize an ecosystem or species habitat, and this method has been used in HEP and GAP analysis in the USA and Ecological Networks in Europe. Some examples of ecosystem planning of national and regional scales in Japan are introduced.     

Ecosystem services classification: A systems ecology perspective of the cascade framework

Ecosystem services research faces several challenges stemming from the plurality of interpretations of classifications and terminologies. In this paper we identify two main challenges with current ecosystem services classification systems: i) the inconsistency across concepts, terminology and definitions, and; ii) the mix up of processes and end-state benefits, or flows and assets. Although different ecosystem service definitions and interpretations can be valuable for enriching the research landscape, it is necessary to address the existing ambiguity to improve comparability among ecosystem-service-based approaches. Using the cascade framework as a reference, and Systems Ecology as a theoretical underpinning, we aim to address the ambiguity across typologies. The cascade framework links ecological processes with elements of human well-being following a pattern similar to a production chain. Systems Ecology is a long-established discipline which provides insight into complex relationships between people and the environment. We present a refreshed conceptualization of ecosystem services which can support ecosystem service assessment techniques and measurement. We combine the notions of biomass, information and interaction from system ecology, with the ecosystem services conceptualization to improve definitions and clarify terminology. We argue that ecosystem services should be defined as the interactions (i.e. processes) of the ecosystem that produce a change in human well-being, while ecosystem components or goods, i.e. countable as biomass units, are only proxies in the assessment of such changes. Furthermore, Systems Ecology can support a re-interpretation of the ecosystem services conceptualization and related applied research, where more emphasis is needed on the underpinning complexity of the ecological system.     

An outcome-based model for predicting recovery pathways in restored ecosystems: The Recovery Cascade Model

Restoration is increasingly the focus of ecosystem management. Few conceptual models exist for predicting the consequences of restoration, especially those that predict the stages of recovery following restoration. Existing models focus either on defining endpoints for recovery or on defining ecosystem processes, but often do not identify barriers to recovery or potential negative effects of restoration. We describe a conceptual model that identifies the outcomes of the recovery pathways following flow restoration in rivers: the Recovery Cascade Model. The model identifies six general aspects of recovery following restoration: physical ecosystem change; creation of, or improvement in habitat condition; reconnection of the restored area to adjacent ecosystems; recolonization of the restored area; resumption of ecological processes; re-establishment of biotic interactions and reproduction by colonists in the restored area. These aspects may occur in sequence, such that recovery is blocked by a single barrier. The model accommodates feedback loops and includes strong connections between physical processes and ecosystem processes, but also identifies factors that are important in achieving endpoints such as potential barriers to further recovery. Identification of barriers to recovery enables improved planning to maximise the positive effects of restoration. By focussing on outcomes, the model provides a planning tool for managers that can be adapted for different ecosystems and restoration methods and which can be used to identify the amenities that an ecosystem will deliver at different stages of recovery. Ecosystem recovery is as much about overcoming barriers as it is about restorative actions.     

A computational approach to ecological and economic sustainable harvest management strategies in a multi-species context, with implications for cod recovery plans

Multi-species models consider interactions, particularly predation, between and within species. Traditional harvest management strategies, such as maximum sustainable yield do not account for these interactions. The exploitation of a single species can be maximised, but this does not mean that the entire ecosystem is being harvested sustainably or at its economic maximum. I present a computational technique (evolutionary algorithms) that can simultaneously optimise harvest management strategies of many species and can easily be modified to allow for factors such as stock recovery, sustainable yields or maximum levels of economic sustainable exploitation. I demonstrate that in an ecologically sustainably managed system where a stock is recovering, maximum economic yield is identical to the maximisation of yield by mass. These findings may have important implications for long term conservation aims and long term profits by fishers.     

Beyond expertise: Ecological science and the making of socially robust restoration strategies

A distinctive feature of ecological restoration is that the human presence in the natural landscape can be perceived as beneficial and not necessarily as harmful. Consequently, negotiations between heterogeneous actors involved and reactions to developments in different ecosystems become part of the scientific practice of restoration. This paper discusses some implications of restoration practice for the science of ecology in connection with recent debates about a new mode of knowledge production in science. I illustrate how different types of expertise from several backgrounds can be fed into each step of restoration implementation via alternate phases of selection and of corroboration by use to expose it to further observation in order to develop more scientifically and socially robust restoration strategies.     

森林植被恢复的理论和实践:用乡土树种重建当地森林--宫胁森林重建法介绍

介绍了国际著名植被生态学家、日本横滨国立大学教授宫胁昭 (Prof.AkiraMiyawaki)创造和倡导的造林法———环境保护林重建法 (即生态造林法 ,简称宫胁造林法 )。本方法的创新和重要之处就是将植被生态学理论应用于森林生态系统恢复并取得成功。该方法依据潜在自然植被和演替理论 ,提倡和强调用乡土树种重建乡土森林植被 (Nativeforestwithnativetrees ) ,目的是能够在较短的时间内恢复当地森林生态系统。用宫胁方法重建环境保护林 ,在日本已经有 60 0多个成功的例子 ,在马来西亚、泰国、巴西、智利和中国等国家用该方法重建热带雨林、常绿阔叶林、落叶阔叶林 ,也有 1 0多个成功实例。宫胁法对于中国的森林植被恢复和重建很有借鉴和帮助     

Soil recovery after removal of the N2-fixing invasive Acacia longifolia: consequences for ecosystem restoration

Invasion by Acacia longifolia alters soil characteristics and processes. The present study was conducted to determine if the changes in soil C and N pools and processes induced by A. longifolia persist after its removal, at the São Jacinto Dunes Nature Reserve (Portugal). Some areas had been invaded for a long time (>20 years) and others more recently (<10 years). For each type of invasion, (i.e., long-invaded and recently invaded), three treatments were used: (1) A. longifolia left intact; (2) A. longifolia was removed; and (3) both A. longifolia and litter layer were removed. Soil samples were collected once a year for four and half years and analysed for chemical and microbial properties. In general, microbial parameters responded faster than C and N pools. In long-invaded areas, two and half years after removal of plants and litter, basal respiration and microbial biomass had already decreased >30%, β-glucosaminidase activity (N mineralization index) >60% and potential nitrification >95%. Removal of plants and litter resulted in a >35% decrease in C and N content after four and half years. In recently invaded areas, β-glucosaminidase activity and potential nitrification showed a marked decrease (>54% and >95%, respectively) after removal of both A. longifolia and litter. Our results suggest that after removal of an N₂-fixing invasive tree that changes ecosystem-level processes, it takes several years before soil nutrients and processes return to pre-invasion levels, but this legacy slowly diminish, suggesting that the susceptibility of native areas to (re)invasion is a function of the time elapsed since removal. Removal of the N-rich litter layer facilitates ecosystem recovery.     

Quantifying the potential of restored natural capital to alleviate poverty and help conserve nature: A case study from South Africa

Poverty and environmental degradation seem to be endemic in many of the former homeland territories of South Africa. The political legacy of Apartheid might have ceased, but the economic and environmental consequences thereof still have to be dealt with. In one interesting case such a poverty-stricken and environmentally degraded area (Bushbuckridge) lies adjacent to a world conservation icon, the Kruger National Park. Currently, however, the community of Bushbuckridge does not enjoy much benefit from this unique geographic location. On the contrary there seems to be increasing tension between the community in their quest for survival and the national park as a conservation enclave. This tension will not disappear automatically. The situation needs to be managed. It is proposed here that by broadening the conservation corridor through land restoration and by incorporating the Bushbuckridge communal land as an IUCN Category VI protected area (a protected area within which sustainable resource harvesting by communities is permitted) into the Kruger National Park and under the provision that the community remains the land owner, the conservation initiative could benefit the community as much as by a factor of four. For this to be successful a proper managerial and institutional system will have to be in place, including a system that will allow the trade in ecosystem goods and services.     

Rehabilitating degraded forests in Central Europe into self–sustaining forest ecosystems

There is a need for a consistent forest restoration strategy for the `Black Triangle', Central Europe. In the past 50 years, forests in this area have been heavily affected by industrial pollution. Recently, the amount of pollutants has decreased. This means that effective forest restoration programmes can be started. Forest decline must be seen as an ecological disturbance which cannot be solved by applying technical measures only. An ecosystem approach to forest restoration must be introduced into restoration policy and management. Basic principles and working methods of such an approach are briefly described and proposals are made for forest restoration policy, management and research in the area.     

生态系统中关键种类型及其管理对策

与其他物种相比,关键种（Ｋｅｙｓｔｏｎｅ ｓｐｅｃｉｅｓ）在其生态系统中具有更深刻的影响。根据野外考察和研究,笔者认为关键种应分为两类：一类对生态系统具有积极的、重要的作用,也就是一般所称的“关键种”,一旦它们受到严重干扰,很多依赖它们而生存的物种也将受到严重威胁或即将消失。另严则相反,具有潜在的消极作用,可称为“潜关键种”（Ｐｏｔｅｎｔｉａｌ ｋｅｙｓｔｏｎｅ ｓｐｅｃｉｅｓ）,一旦它们获得发展     

印度北部Pali Gad流域资源利用模式研究

喜马拉雅西部独特、丰富的自然资源对当地居民生计及生态服务等方面起着重要的作用。由于长期以来当地居民与山地生态系统的相互作用,特别是农业生产、畜牧业放牧、薪柴采集以及其他多种多样的资源利用方式,形成了一种特殊的山区文化景观。本文以印度北部的山地小流域PaliGad（共有25个村子）为例,主要研究当地的资源利用状况,利用卫星遥感数据对该地区可利用自然资源进行评估分析,通过从户到户的社会经济调查,对其提供的生态服务功能以及受威胁的程度进行估计,研究分析了村民对资源需求及获取的时空变化情况。结果显示,平均每人每天的薪柴采集量为1．12k,平均每人每天通过修剪枝叶获得饲料采集量为3．69kg,平均每人每天从森林中采集草料的量为3．25kgo对生态系统服务功能进行估测的结果显示,森林可提供更多的临时调节功能,而农业更多的是支撑服务功能,河流,水体给当地人提供了文化服务功能。以山区典型的人-地生态系统为例,这类生态系统中的自然资源破碎化程度很高。研究发现,该区域贫瘠土地上的自然资源需求还在不断增加。因此,从长远来看,人对资源的无止境获取将不利于整个流域的可持续发展。     

宏观生态学研究的特点与方法

宏观生态学是研究生态系统以上层次的生态学,研究对象为大尺度复杂系统,研究内容和方法都具有不同于传统生态学的明显特点。重视对空间异质性的研究,重视人类的生态作用,注意运用等级结构理论,其研究结果常常是非实验性和非稳定性的。遥感和地理信息系统是空间数据采集和管理、分析的主要手段,景观分析和景观模型是宏观生态研究的重要方法,定位观测试验的网络研究则是实现宏观整体研究的必由之路。