Restraint stress delays reentrainment in male and female diurnal and nocturnal rodents

A temporary loss of normal circadian entrainment, such as that associated with shift work and transmeridian travel, can result in an array of detrimental symptoms, making rapid reentrainment of rhythmicity essential. While there is a wealth of literature examining the effects of stress on the entrained circadian system, less is known about the influence of stress on circadian function following a phase shift of the light: dark (LD) cycle. The authors find that recovery of locomotor activity synchronization is altered by restraint stress in the diurnal rodent Octodon degus (degu) and the nocturnal rat. In the first experiment, degus were subjected to a 6-h phase advance of the LD cycle. Sixty minutes after the new lights-on, animals underwent 60 min of restraint stress. The number of days it took each animal to reentrain its activity rhythms to the new LD cycle was recorded and compared to the number of days it took the animal to reentrain under control conditions. When subjected to restraint stress, degus took 30% longer to reentrain their activity rhythms (p < 0.01). In a second experiment, rats underwent a similar experimental paradigm. As with the degus, stress significantly delayed the reentrainment of rats' activity rhythms (p < 0.01). There was no interaction between sex and stress on the rate of reentrainment for either rats or degus. Furthermore, there was no effect of stress on the free-running activity rhythm of degus, suggesting that the effect of stress on reentrainment rate is not secondary to alterations of period length. Together, these data point to a detrimental effect of stress on recovery of entrainment of circadian rhythms, which is independent of activity niche and sex.     

Fos expression within vasopressin-containing neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of diurnal rodents compared to nocturnal rodents

The underlying neural causes of the differences between nocturnal and diurnal animals with respect to their patterns of rhythmicity have not yet been identified. These differences could be due to differences in some subpopulation of neurons within the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) or to differences in responsiveness to signals emanating from the SCN. The experiments described in this article were designed to address the former hypothesis by examining Fos expression within vasopressin (VP) neurons in the SCN of nocturnal and diurnal rodents. Earlier work has shown that within the SCN of the diurnal rodent Arvicanthis niloticus, approximately 30% of VP-immunoreactive (IR) neurons express Fos during the day, whereas Fos rarely is expressed in VP-IR neurons in the SCN of nocturnal rats. However, in earlier studies, rats were housed in constant darkness and pulsed with light, whereas Arvicanthis were housed in a light:dark (LD) cycle. To provide data from rats that would permit comparisons with A. niloticus, the first experiment examined VP/Fos double labeling in the SCN of rats housed in a 12:12 LD cycle and perfused 4 h into the light phase or 4 h into the dark phase. Fos was significantly elevated in the SCN of animals sacrificed during the light compared to the dark phase, but virtually no Fos at either time was found in VP-IR neurons, confirming that the SCN of rats and diurnal Arvicanthis are significantly different in this regard. The authors also evaluated the relationship between this aspect of SCN function and diurnality by examining Fos-IR and VP-IR in diurnal and nocturnal forms of Arvicanthis. In this species, most individuals exhibit diurnal wheel-running rhythms, but some exhibit a distinctly different and relatively nocturnal pattern. The authors have bred their laboratory colony for this trait and used animals with both patterns in this experiment. They examined Fos expression within VP-IR neurons in the SCN of both nocturnal and diurnal A. niloticus kept on a 12:12 LD cycle and perfused 4 h into the light phase or 4 h into the dark phase, and brains were processed for immunohistochemical identification of Fos and VP. Both the total number of Fos-IR cells and the proportion of VP-IR neurons containing Fos (20%) were higher during the day than during the night. Neither of these parameters differed between nocturnal and diurnal animals. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Thermal tolerances differ between diurnal and nocturnal foragers in the ant Ectatomma ruidum

Insectes Sociaux - Physiological constraints can limit thermal niche breadth in organisms, particularly for small-bodied ectotherms. Daily temperature fluctuations often surpass annual (seasonal)...     

Effects of circadian phase and melatonin injection on anxiety-like behavior in nocturnal and diurnal rodents

Animals show daily rhythms in most bodily functions, resulting from the integration of information from an endogenous circadian clock and external stimuli. These rhythms are adaptive and are expected to be related to activity patterns, i.e., to be opposite in diurnal and nocturnal species. Melatonin is secreted during the night in all mammalian species, regardless of their activity patterns. Consequently, in diurnal species the nocturnal secretion of melatonin is concurrent with the resting phase, whereas in nocturnal species it is related to an increase in activity. In this research, we examined in three diurnal and three nocturnal rodent species whether a daily rhythm in anxiety-like behavior exists; whether it differs between nocturnal and diurnal species; and how melatonin affects anxiety-like behavior in species with different activity patterns. Anxiety-like behavior levels were analyzed using the elevated plus-maze. We found a daily rhythm in anxiety-like behavior and a significant response to daytime melatonin administration in all three nocturnal species, which showed significantly lower levels of anxiety during the dark phase, and after melatonin administration. The diurnal species showed either an inverse pattern to that of the nocturnal species in anxiety-like behavior rhythm and in response to daytime melatonin injection, or no rhythm and, accordingly, no response to melatonin.     

Studies in diurnal rhythms ix the water-relations of some nocturnal tropical arthropods

The rate of water-loss from tropical African centipedes (Rbysida nuda and Ethmostigmus trigonopodus) and millipedes (Oxydesmus platycercus and Ophistreptus sp.) is proportional to the saturation deficiency of the atmosphere. These animals therefore resemble forms from temperate and desert regions in this aspect of their physiology. Their nocturnal habits are probably related to their high rate of transpiration. The endogenous 24-hour rhythm shows a slight retardation in constant light and an acceleration in darkness. The probable function of this is to synchronize it with diurnal environmental changes. The West African scorpion, Pandinus imperator, has a critical temperature considerably lower than those of desert species and comparable with that of the Italian Euscorpius germanus.

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Zusammenfassung Bie den tropischen afrikanischen Hundertfüßlern Rhysida nuda und Ethmostigmus trigonopodus, den Tausendfüßlern Oxydesmus platycercus und Ophistreptus sp. sowie bei dem Skorpion Pandinus imperator wurden die Wasserverlustraten durch Wägen der Individuen bestimmt, die über Phosphorpentoxyd in konischen Flaschen aufgehängt wurden, die in ein Wasserbad tauchten. Die Tiere wurden jeder Temperatur 20 Minuten lang ausgesetzt, bevor der durch Evaporation bedingte Betrag des Wasserverlustes bestimmt wurde. Es wird gezeigt, daß diese Methode wertvolle Vergleiche zwischen den verschiedenen Arten zu ziehen gestattet. Sowohl bei Hundertfüßlern wie auch bei Tausendfüßlern erwies sich die Transpiration als proportional zum Sättigungsdefizit der Luft. Diese Tiere ähneln deshalb in diesem Punkte ihrer Physiologie Arten aus gemäßigten und Wüsten-Gebieten.Ihre nächtliche Lebensweise, die mittels Aktographen festgestellt wurde, steht wahrscheinlich in Beziehung zu der vergleichsweise hohen Wasserverlustrate. Der endogene diurnale Rhythmus ziegt eine leichte Verzögerung bei Dauerbelechtung und eine Beschleunigung bei Dunkelheit. Auf diese Weise wird wahrscheinlich die Periodizität dieser Tiere mit dem 24-Stunden-Rhythmus der Umgebung synchronisiert.Die kritsche Temperatur des westafrikanischen Skorpions Pandinus imperator liegt beträchtlich niedriger als die der Wüsten-Arten und ähnelt der des italienischen Euscorpius germanus. Es wird vermutet, daß in diesem Falle die nächtliche Lebensweise in Beziehung steht zu der Gefährdung des großen, langsamen Tieres durch räuberische Wirbeltiere.Es wird geschlossen, daß im allgemeinen die Transpirationsrate in Beziehung zum Habitat steht und bei Wüstenbewohnern am niedrigsten ist.

     

Daily rhythms of Fos expression in hypothalamic targets of the suprachiasmatic nucleus in diurnal and nocturnal rodents.

Little is known about the differences in the neural substrates of circadian rhythms that are responsible for the maintenance of differences between diurnal and nocturnal patterns of activity in mammals. In both groups of animals, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) functions as the principal circadian pacemaker, and surprisingly, several correlates of neuronal activity in the SCN show similar daily patterns in diurnal and nocturnal species. In this study, immunocytochemistry was used to monitor daily fluctuations in the expression of the nuclear phosphoprotein Fos in the SCN and in hypothalamic targets of the SCN axonal outputs in the nocturnal laboratory rat and in the diurnal murid rodent, Arvicanthis niloticus. The daily patterns of Fos expression in the SCN were very similar across the two species. However, clear species differences were seen in regions of the hypothalamus that receive inputs from the SCN including the subparaventricular zone. These results indicate that differences in the circadian system found downstream from the SCN contribute to the emergence of a diurnal or nocturnal profile in mammals.     

Colour vision in diurnal and nocturnal hawkmoths

Diurnal and nocturnal hawkmoths (Sphingidae, Lepidoptera) havethree spectral types of receptor sensitive to ultraviolet, blueand green light. As avid flower visitors and pollinators, theyuse olfactory and visual cues to find and recognise flowers.Moths of the diurnal species Macroglossum stellatarum and thenocturnal species Deilephila elpenor, Hyles lineata and Hylesgallii use and learn the colour of flowers. Nocturnal speciescan discriminate flowers at starlight intensities when humansand honeybees are colour-blind. M. stellatarum can use achromatic,intensity-related cues if colour cues are absent, and this isprobably also true for D. elpenor. Both species can recognisecolours even under a changed illumination colour.     

Cone photopigments in nocturnal and diurnal procyonids

Summary Procyonids are small, New World carnivores distributed among some 6 genera. Electroretinogram (ERG) flicker photometry was used to measure the spectra of the cone photopigments for members of two nocturnal species, the raccoon (Procyon lotor) and the kinkajou (Potos flavus), and a diurnal species, the coati (Nasua nasua). Each of the 3 has a class of cone photopigment with maximum sensitivity in the middle to long wavelengths. The spectral positioning of this cone is different for the three. Whereas the raccoon and kinkajou are monochromatic, the diurnal coati is a dichromat having an additional class of cone photopigment with peak sensitivity close to 433 nm.Abbreviations ERG electroretinogram - SWS short wavelength sensitive     

Ocellar optics in nocturnal and diurnal bees and wasps

Nocturnal bees, wasps and ants have considerably larger ocelli than their diurnal relatives, suggesting an active role in vision at night. In a first step to understanding what this role might be, the morphology and physiological optics of ocelli were investigated in three tropical rainforest species – the nocturnal sweat bee Megalopta genalis, the nocturnal paper wasp Apoica pallens and the diurnal paper wasp Polistes occidentalis – using hanging-drop techniques and standard histological methods. Ocellar image quality, in addition to lens focal length and back focal distance, was determined in all three species. During flight, the ocellar receptive fields of both nocturnal species are centred very dorsally, possibly in order to maximise sensitivity to the narrow dorsal field of light that enters through gaps in the rainforest canopy. Since all ocelli investigated had a slightly oval shape, images were found to be astigmatic: images formed by the major axis of the ocellus were located further from the proximal surface of the lens than images formed by the minor axis. Despite being astigmatic, images formed at either focal plane were reasonably sharp in all ocelli investigated. When compared to the position of the retina below the lens, measurements of back focal distance reveal that the ocelli of Megalopta are highly underfocused and unable to resolve spatial detail. This together with their very large and tightly packed rhabdoms suggests a role in making sensitive measurements of ambient light intensity. In contrast, the ocelli of the two wasps form images near the proximal boundary of the retina, suggesting the potential for modest resolving power. In light of these results, possible roles for ocelli in nocturnal bees and wasps are discussed, including the hypothesis that they might be involved in nocturnal homing and navigation, using two main cues: the spatial pattern of bright patches of daylight visible through the rainforest canopy, and compass information obtained from polarised skylight (from the setting sun or the moon) that penetrates these patches.     

State-dependent shifts between nocturnal and diurnal activity in salmon

Animal species have usually evolved to be active at a specific time of the daily cycle, and so are either diurnal, nocturnal or crepuscular. However, we show here that the daily timing of activity in juvenile Atlantic salmon is related to the life-history strategy that they have adopted (i.e. the age at which they will migrate to the sea) and their current state (body size/relative nutritional state). Salmon can detect food more easily by day than by night, but the risk of predation is greater. Nocturnal foraging should generally be preferred, but the greater the need for growth, the greater should be the shift towards diurnal activity. In line with this prediction, all fish were predominantly nocturnal, but salmon preparing to migrate to the sea, which would experience size-dependent mortality during the forthcoming migration, were more diurnal than fish of the same age and size that were delaying migration for a further year. Moreover, the proportion of activity by day was negatively correlated with body size within the intending migrants. It has previously been shown that overwinter survival in fish delaying migration is maximized not by growth but by minimizing exposure to predators. As predicted, daytime activity in these fish was correlated with the prior rate of weight loss, fish being more diurnal when their risk of starvation was greater. To our knowledge, these are the first quantitative demonstrations of state-dependent variation in the timing of daily activity.     

White-throated sparrow morphs that differ in song production rate also differ in the anatomy of some song-related brain areas

White-throated sparrows are unusual among songbirds in that they occur in two color morphs, white-striped and tan-striped, determined by a chromosomal inversion and maintained by negative assortative mating. These differ in several reproductive behaviors, including amount of singing: white-striped males sing frequently, tan-striped females never sing, and tan-striped males and white-striped females sing an intermediate amount. The present study measures the volumes of several nuclei in the avian song system and relates these to color morph and to sex. We find that robustus archistristalis and the tracheosyringeal part of the hypoglossal nucleus, nuclei closely involved in song production, are larger in white-striped than in tan-striped birds. We also find morph differences for nuclei in the rostal division of the song system, nuclei believed to be less directly involved in song production. We find sex differences throughout the song system as has been reported in other songbirds. Relationships between structure and function in the song system are discussed. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Ultraviolet reflection and predation risk in diurnal and nocturnal Lepidoptera

According to our extensive data on Lepidoptera (883 species),UV wing patterns are almost three times more common in nocturnalthan in diurnal Lepidoptera. This might be due to predation,because the primary diurnal predators, birds, utilize UV lightin foraging and even prefer UV-reflecting prey. To test thishypothesis, we conducted a field experiment with tethered livingmoths whose wings were artificially manipulated to reflect (UV+,reflection at UV wavelength: 15%) or absorb (UV–) UV light,keeping longer wavelengths identical. Thus, any difference foundin survival rates would be the result of the difference in wingpatterns in UV spectrum. Significantly more UV+ moths than UV–ones were eaten in the daytime, but no difference in predationrates could be detected when moths were exposed to nocturnalpredators. The different survival rates indicate that UV reflectionincreased predation risk by visually orienting diurnal predators.The lack of difference at night arises from the lack of UV-sensitivepredators. UV wing patterns, even if they are important in intraspeciescommunication, seem to be costly to diurnal Lepidoptera by attractingpredators.     

Photoperiodic control of circadian activity rhythms in diurnal rodents

The responses of red squirrels(Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) and eastern chipmunks(Tamias striatus) to complete and skeleton light-dark (LD) cycles were compared. The skeletons, comprised of two 1-h pulses of light per day, effectively simulated the complete photoperiods in the squirrels, but not the chipmunks. Skeleton photoperiods greater than 12-h caused the chipmunks to shift activity from the longer to the shorter of the two intervals between the pulses. To interpret the mechanism of phase control, squirrels and chipmunks were kept in continuous darkness and exposed to 1-h light pulses every 10 days. The time-course of entrainment was also quantified. Both techniques produced light-response curves. The data suggest that the parametric and non-parametric contributions to entrainment are different in these two rodent species.Presented at the Eighth International Congress of Biometeorology, 9–14 September 1979, Shefayim, Israel.     

Three spectrally distinct photoreceptors in diurnal and nocturnal Australian ants

Ants are thought to be special among Hymenopterans in having only dichromatic colour vision based on two spectrally distinct photoreceptors. Many ants are highly visual animals, however, and use vision extensively for navigation. We show here that two congeneric day- and night-active Australian ants have three spectrally distinct photoreceptor types, potentially supporting trichromatic colour vision. Electroretinogram recordings show the presence of three spectral sensitivities with peaks (λ_max) at 370, 450 and 550 nm in the night-active Myrmecia vindex and peaks at 370, 470 and 510 nm in the day-active Myrmecia croslandi. Intracellular electrophysiology on individual photoreceptors confirmed that the night-active M. vindex has three spectral sensitivities with peaks (λ_max) at 370, 430 and 550 nm. A large number of the intracellular recordings in the night-active M. vindex show unusually broad-band spectral sensitivities, suggesting that photoreceptors may be coupled. Spectral measurements at different temporal frequencies revealed that the ultraviolet receptors are comparatively slow. We discuss the adaptive significance and the probability of trichromacy in Myrmecia ants in the context of dim light vision and visual navigation.     

Brightness preference in nocturnal and diurnal South American monkeys.

In a test situation where choice was not tied to reinforcement, both squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus) consistently chose to view the more luminant of a pair of lights. Over a two log unit range of luminance, the degree of preference in both species for the brighter of two lights was found to depend on their difference in luminance and not on their actual luminances.     

Variations in diurnal and nocturnal waking state in air traffic controllers

Physiological variables of 22 air traffic controllers (ATCs), mean age 32, were continuously telemetrically recorded from 08:00 to 17:30 and on the following day from 19:00 to either 00:00 or 0.3:00. EEG (alpha and theta indices, slow delta waves), EOG (palpebral blinks), EMG (from the neck muscles) and EKG (HR) were recorded. Comparison between day and night shows an increase at night of HR and slow waves, particularly after midnight. These results were compared with similar ones obtained from two other populations of the same age having very different professional activities (university personnel and factory workers). The EEG indices and HR are higher in ATCs. The work load imposed by the need in air traffic control to maintain a high level of vigilance, especially difficult after midnight, is in great part responsible for the high values of physiological parameters observed in this study.     

Two alanine racemase genes in Salmonella typhimurium that differ in structure and function.

Mutations were isolated in a previously undescribed Salmonella typhimurium gene encoding an alanine racemase essential for utilization of L-alanine as a source of carbon, energy, and nitrogen. This new locus, designated dadB, lies within one kilobase of the D-alanine dehydrogenase locus (dadA), which is also required for alanine catabolism. The dadA and dadB genes are coregulated. Mutants (including insertions) lacking the dadB alanine racemase do not require D-alanine for growth unless a mutation is introduced at a second locus, designated dal. Two genes specifying alanine racemase activity were cloned from S. typhimurium. The two cloned DNA sequences do not cross-hybridize with each other; one was shown to contain the dadB gene.