Enterovirus 71 Infection Causes Severe Pulmonary Lesions in Gerbils,Meriones unguiculatus,Which Can Be Prevented by Passive Immunization with Specific Antisera

Neurogenic pulmonary edema caused by severe brainstem encephalitis is the leading cause of death in young children infected by Enterovirus 71 (EV71). However, no pulmonary lesions have been found in EV71-infected transgenic or non-transgenic mouse models. Development of a suitable animal model is important for studying EV71 pathogenesis and assessing effect of therapeutic approaches. We had found neurological disorders in EV71-induced young gerbils previously. Here, we report severe pulmonary lesions characterized with pulmonary congestion and hemorrhage in a gerbil model for EV71 infection. In the EV71-infected gerbils, six 21-day-old or younger gerbils presented with a sudden onset of symptoms and rapid illness progression after inoculation with 1×10^5.5 TCID₅₀ of EV71 via intraperitoneal (IP) or intramuscular (IM) route. Respiratory symptoms were observed along with interstitial pneumonia, pulmonary congestion and extensive lung hemorrhage could be detected in the lung tissues by histopathological examination. EV71 viral titer was found to be peak at late stages of infection. EV71-induced pulmonary lesions, together with severe neurological disorders were also observed in gerbils, accurately mimicking the disease process in EV71-infected patients. Passive transfer with immune sera from EV71 infected adult gerbils with a neutralizing antibody (GMT=89) prevented severe pulmonary lesion formation after lethal EV71 challenge. These results establish this gerbil model as a useful platform for studying the pathogenesis of EV71-induced pulmonary lesions, immunotherapy and antiviral drugs.     

Comparative Study of the Cytokine/Chemokine Response in Children with Differing Disease Severity in Enterovirus 71-Induced Hand,Foot, and Mouth Disease

Background

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection can lead to a rapidly progressing, life-threatening, and severe neurological disease in young children, including the development of human hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD). This study aims to further characterize the specific immunological features in EV71–mediated HFMD patients presenting with differing degrees of disease severity.

Methodology

Comprehensive cytokine and chemokine expression were broadly evaluated by cytokine antibody array in EV71–infected patients hospitalized for HFMD compared to Coxsackievirus A16-infected patients and age-matched healthy controls. More detailed analysis using Luminex-based cytokine bead array was performed in EV71–infected patients stratified into diverse clinic outcomes. Additionally, immune cell frequencies in peripheral blood and EV71–specific antibodies in plasma were also examined.

Principal Findings

Expression of several cytokines and chemokines were significantly increased in plasma from EV71–infected patients compared to healthy controls, which further indicated that: (1) GM-CSF, MIP-1β, IL-2, IL-33, and IL-23 secretion was elevated in patients who rapidly developed disease and presented with uncomplicated neurological damage; (2) G-CSF and MCP-1 were distinguishably secreted in EV71 infected very severe patients presenting with acute respiratory failure; (3) IP-10, MCP-1, IL-6, IL-8, and G-CSF levels were much higher in cerebrospinal fluid than in plasma from patients with neurological damage; (4) FACS analysis revealed that the frequency of CD19⁺HLADR⁺ mature B cells dynamically changed over time during the course of hospitalization and was accompanied by dramatically increased EV71–specific antibodies. Our data provide a panoramic view of specific immune mediator and cellular immune responses of HFMD and may provide useful immunological profiles for monitoring the progress of EV71–induced fatal neurological symptoms with acute respiratory failure.     

不同季节长爪沙鼠同生群的繁殖特征及其在生活史对策中的意义

通过剪趾和染毛双重标志的重捕跟踪途径, 结合行为观测研究了栖息于内蒙古农牧交错区草地生境的长爪沙鼠种群繁殖格局。按同生群分组分析的结果显示春季(4～5 月) 出生的雄鼠当年能达到性成熟的个体仅占34.6 % , 性成熟发育历期为3 个月, 其繁殖平均结束时间比越冬鼠早近1 个月。6 月以后出生的雄鼠当年达不到性成熟。达到性成熟的当年雄鼠在繁殖期结束前多数又转入性休止状态。当年雌鼠性成熟历期约2.5 月龄, 初次产仔时间在3.5 月龄左右。6 月份以后出生的雌鼠当年不参加繁殖。各同生群雌鼠1 年中最多产仔次数有差异,越冬鼠可产3～4 窝。4～5 月份出生的雌鼠当年可产1 窝。长爪沙鼠当年生雌、雄鼠非同步发育以及由性成熟的当年鼠与越冬鼠构成的繁殖格局有利于维持家群个体的适合度, 是该鼠生活史对策的重要特征之一。     

Entamoeba histolytica: Diffuse Liver Inflammation in Gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) with Experimentally Induced Amebic Liver Abscess

The histopathological changes that occur in the uninfected liver lobes of gerbils with a localized amebic liver abscess (left lobe) were studied from 5 to 60 days after inoculation. Early parenchymal changes (10 days) in the right and median liver lobes showed a lymphocytic infiltrate and bile duct proliferation in the portal areas. Maximum alternations occurred at 20 to 30 days after inoculation and were characterized by a dense portal infiltrate, hepatocyte degeneration, granulocytic infiltrate and marked glycogen depletion. In drug-treated infections with metronidazole, the diffuse liver inflammation was terminated. The results of this study suggest that the diffuse liver injury was directly or indirectly induced by the presence of a proliferating amebic liver abscess and that the pathology caused by amebic liver abscess is more extensive than previously thought.     

Hand Foot and Mouth Disease Due to Enterovirus 71 in Malaysia

Hand foot and mouth disease is a febrile sickness complex characterized by cutaneous eruption (exanthem) on the palms and soles with simultaneous occurrence of muco-cutanous vesiculo-ulcerative lesions (enanthem) affecting the mouth. The illness is caused by a number of enteroviruses with coxsackievirus A16 and enterovirus 71 as the main causative agents. Human enterovirus 71 (EV71) belongs to the species Human enterovirus A under the genus Enterovirus within the family Picornaviridae. EV71 has been associa...     

菏泽地区2009年肠道病毒71型与其他肠道病毒所致手足口病临床差异研究

目的:探讨EV71引起小儿手足口病与其他肠道病毒所致手足口病的临床特点的差异.方法:回顾性分析2009年3月-9月菏泽地区各定点医院收治的病原学检测为阳性的320例小儿手足口病的临床资料,筛出EV71感染的手足口病患儿进行分析,其他肠道病毒所致手足口痛患儿作为对照组.结果:菏泽地区2009年抽取的病原学检测为阳性的320例患儿,肠道病毒71型引起手足口病占106例,其余为其他肠道病毒所致手足口病.(1)男女发病基本相同,发病年龄1～3岁居多,农村患儿占绝大多数.(2)EV71感染的患儿临床主要表现高热、神经系统症状、无皮疹,大多数外周血象高、血糖高,可合并心肌损害,心电图异常、部分发现胸片、脑电图及核磁异常,部分符合重症手足口病标准.(3)其他肠道病毒感染的惠儿临床症状以皮疹、低热、上感症状为主,少数患儿有精神差,基本不出现神经系统症状,少数发现外周血象高、血糖高、合并心肌损害,一般胸片不会发现异常.(4)56例出现神经系统症状的患儿收集脑脊液进行两次RT-PCR扩增,发现50例EV71阳性.结论:EV71导致的手足口病,病情凶险,易致神经损害及肺水肿,早期识别重症病例,及时救治,普及病原体的检测对提高诊治能力,加强疾病的认识,对减少致残率及死亡率很有帮助.     

建立长爪沙鼠和小白鼠蛲虫病动物模型的可行性研究

本研究选用实验动物长爪沙鼠和小白鼠拟建立新的人蛲虫病动物模型。在实验前,全部动物用复方甲苯咪唑（８０ｍｇ／ｋｇ）驱除肠道线虫。感染动物的蛲虫卵,一种直接取自蛲虫病患儿肛门处,另一种为实验室培养的雌性蛲虫成虫产的卵。实验组动物分别以不同数量的虫卵（１００个／只、４００个／只和１０００个／只）经口感染并分组喂养。同时在小白鼠的实验组中,选一组肌注醋酸可的松。１￣４周后分批解剖动物从肠道收集蛲虫,结果所     

Recombinant Adeno-Vaccine Expressing Enterovirus 71-Like Particles against Hand,Foot, and Mouth Disease

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) and coxsackieviruses (CV) are the major causative agents of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD). There is not currently a vaccine available against HFMD, even though a newly developed formalin-inactivated EV71 (FI-EV71) vaccine has been tested in clinical trial and has shown efficacy against EV71. We have designed and genetically engineered a recombinant adenovirus Ad-EVVLP with the EV71 P1 and 3CD genes inserted into the E1/E3-deleted adenoviral genome. Ad-EVVLP were produced in HEK-293A cells. In addition to Ad-EVVLP particles, virus-like particles (VLPs) formed from the physical association of EV71 capsid proteins, VP0, VP1, and VP3 expressed from P1 gene products. They were digested by 3CD protease and confirmed to be produced by Ad-EVVLP-producing cells, as determined using transmission electron microscopy and western blotting. Mouse immunogenicity studies showed that Ad-EVVLP-immunized antisera neutralized the EV71 B4 and C2 genotypes. Activation of VLP-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺/IFN-γ T cells associated with Th1/Th2-balanced IFN-ɣ, IL-17, IL-4, and IL-13 was induced; in contrast, FI-EV71 induced only Th2-mediated neutralizing antibody against EV71 and low VLP-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses. The antiviral immunity against EV71 was clearly demonstrated in mice vaccinated with Ad-EVVLP in a hSCARB2 transgenic (hSCARB2-Tg) mouse challenge model. Ad-EVVLP-vaccinated mice were 100% protected and demonstrated reduced viral load in both the CNS and muscle tissues. Ad-EVVLP successfully induced anti-CVA16 immunities. Although antisera had no neutralizing activity against CVA16, the 3C-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺/IFN-γ T cells were identified, which could mediate protection against CVA16 challenge. FI-EV71 did not induce 3C-mediated immunity and had no efficacy against the CVA16 challenge. These results suggest that Ad-EVVLP can enhance neutralizing antibody and protective cellular immune responses to prevent EV71 infection and cellular immune responses against CV infection.     

Growth and development of Haemonchus contortus in jirds, Meriones unguiculatus.

Growth and development of Haemonchus contortus were examined in jirds and were compared to these processes in lambs. Number, sex, size, and stage of development were determined for worms recovered at necropsy at various times postinoculation (PI) from immunosuppressed jirds inoculated with approximately 1,000 exsheathed infective larvae (L3) of H. contortus. In addition, gastric tissue samples from jirds were examined histologically. Parallel studies were done in lambs inoculated with approximately 7,500 L3. Typically, 5-30% of the inoculum established and survived in jirds at reasonably stable numbers to day 14 PI. By day 21 PI, worm numbers in jirds decreased dramatically. Although the parasite was similar in size and development on day 4 PI in jirds and lambs, from day 7 PI on, worms were significantly smaller and less developed in jirds. On histological examination, the parasite was found only in the glandular portion of the stomach of jirds (anatomically similar to its predilection site in the abomasum of lambs), and histological changes were consistent for both host species. Although growth and development of H. contortus are slower and incomplete in jirds, the parasite establishes, grows, and develops (at anatomically comparable sites in both hosts) in this model. Thus, the model appears to provide a useful laboratory host to study H. contortus.     

Cyclical Patterns of Hand,Foot and Mouth Disease Caused by Enterovirus A71 in Malaysia

Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is an important emerging pathogen causing large epidemics of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) in children. In Malaysia, since the first EV-A71 epidemic in 1997, recurrent cyclical epidemics have occurred every 2–3 years for reasons that remain unclear. We hypothesize that this cyclical pattern is due to changes in population immunity in children (measured as seroprevalence). Neutralizing antibody titers against EV-A71 were measured in 2,141 residual serum samples collected from children ≤12 years old between 1995 and 2012 to determine the seroprevalence of EV-A71. Reported national HFMD incidence was highest in children <2 years, and decreased with age; in support of this, EV-A71 seroprevalence was significantly associated with age, indicating greater susceptibility in younger children. EV-A71 epidemics are also characterized by peaks of increased genetic diversity, often with genotype changes. Cross-sectional time series analysis was used to model the association between EV-A71 epidemic periods and EV-A71 seroprevalence adjusting for age and climatic variables (temperature, rainfall, rain days and ultraviolet radiance). A 10% increase in absolute monthly EV-A71 seroprevalence was associated with a 45% higher odds of an epidemic (adjusted odds ratio, aOR1.45; 95% CI 1.24–1.69; P<0.001). Every 10% decrease in seroprevalence between preceding and current months was associated with a 16% higher odds of an epidemic (aOR = 1.16; CI 1.01–1.34 P<0.034). In summary, the 2–3 year cyclical pattern of EV-A71 epidemics in Malaysia is mainly due to the fall of population immunity accompanying the accumulation of susceptible children between epidemics. This study will impact the future planning, timing and target populations for vaccine programs.     

Lysosomal enzymes in oocytes of the Mongolian gerbil,Meriones unguiculatus

Summary Histochemical investigations reveal that the intact oocytes of the Mongolian gerbil, Meriones unguiculatus, contain numerous acid phosphatase positive granules in every follicular stage. Non-specific esterase is active in early oocytes only in a faint peripheral margin of the ooplasm and in the zona pellucida of large secondary and tertiary follicles.This investigation was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Ko 742/1)     

Exteroceptive factors and pregnancy block in the Mongolian gerbil, Meriones unguiculatus

A series of experiments based on 150 newly mated, uni- and multi-parous Mongolian gerbils provided no evidence for the existence of pregnancy blocking due to a strangle male effect. The reduced level of fertility observed was attributed to stressful factors at critical times in the pregnancy. Treatment with 10 i.u. PMSG on the day following mating interrupted pregnancy and the majority of females mated again within 4 days.     

Toxicity of hexachlorobenzene in Meriones unguiculatus: effects on thyroid and liver

The effect of in vivo administered hexachlorobenzene (HCB) on liver and thyroid was studied on Meriones unguiculatus. HCB (1.6, 4, and 16 mg/kg of body weight) has been administered orally to meriones for 30 days. At the end of the experiment, the body weight of the animals did not show significant change. However, the higher dose of HCB treatment led to a pronounced hepatic hypertrophy comparatively to controls. Histological observations revealed many cytomorphological alterations. Cellular necrosis, periportal, and centrolobular vein congestion and cytoplasmic vacuolisation were noted and correlated with the administered doses of HCB. The higher dose of HCB induced modifications in the activities of hepatic transaminases and on thyroid hormones levels: ALAT activity level was more pronounced in males (170+/-24.7 U/l vs. 52.66+/-8.29 U/l in controls) than in females (120+/-12.47 U/l vs. 56+/-5 U/l in controls). However, ASAT activity increased significantly only in females (259+/-29 U/l vs. 244.66+/-18 U/l in controls). Plasma total triiodothyronine (TT3) and total thyroxine (TT4) levels seemed to be sex-dependent in intoxicated animals, since TT4 decreased significantly in males (21.95+/-7.46 nmol/l vs. 40.59+/-1.08 nmol/l in controls) and TT3 in females (1.42+/-0.11 nmol/l vs. 3.96+/-0.48 nmol/l in controls).     

Craniopharyngioma in the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus): a case report

A case of spontaneously occurring infiltrative craniopharyngioma in a laboratory-reared gerbil is reported. The histopathological and ultrastructural features are described.