Averrhoidium dalyi (Sapindaceae): a new species from western Amazonia

The present paper describes and illustrates the new speciesAverrhoidium dalyi and provides a key to the species ofAverrhoidium. The new species is known from lowland, terra firme forest in the Purus River basin, in Acre, Brazil, and from Manu National Park in Madre de Dios, Peru.

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Resumen  En el presente artículo se describe, discute e ilustra la nueva especieAverrhoidium dalyi coleccionada en la cuenca del Río Purus en el estado de Acre, Brasil y en el Parque Nacional del Manu en el departamento Madre de Dios, Peru. También en el presente se provee una clave para las especies deAverrhoidium.

     

Genetic Characterization of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus from Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru: Identification of a New Subtype ID Lineage

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) has been responsible for hundreds of thousands of human and equine cases of severe disease in the Americas. A passive surveillance study was conducted in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador to determine the arboviral etiology of febrile illness. Patients with suspected viral-associated, acute, undifferentiated febrile illness of <7 days duration were enrolled in the study and blood samples were obtained from each patient and assayed by virus isolation. Demographic and clinical information from each patient was also obtained at the time of voluntary enrollment. In 2005–2007, cases of Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) were diagnosed for the first time in residents of Bolivia; the patients did not report traveling, suggesting endemic circulation of VEEV in Bolivia. In 2001 and 2003, VEE cases were also identified in Ecuador. Since 1993, VEEV has been continuously isolated from patients in Loreto, Peru, and more recently (2005), in Madre de Dios, Peru. We performed phylogenetic analyses with VEEV from Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru and compared their relationships to strains from other parts of South America. We found that VEEV subtype ID Panama/Peru genotype is the predominant one circulating in Peru. We also demonstrated that VEEV subtype ID strains circulating in Ecuador belong to the Colombia/Venezuela genotype and VEEV from Madre de Dios, Peru and Cochabamba, Bolivia belong to a new ID genotype. In summary, we identified a new major lineage of enzootic VEEV subtype ID, information that could aid in the understanding of the emergence and evolution of VEEV in South America.     

Length–weight relationships of freshwater fishes of the Alto Madre de Dios River (Manu Biosphere Reserve,Peru)

The present work provides the estimates of morphometric relationships for 22 native freshwater fish species (11 Characidae, five Loricariidae, two Heptapteridae, one Astroblepidae, one Crenuchidae, one Curimatidae and one Erythrinidae) collected in the Alto Madre de Dios River (Cuzco and Madre de Dios, Peru) in June 2012 using a mobile backpack electrofishing unit. These are the first length–weight relationships reported for 24 species, mostly endemic to the Amazonian basin. Knowledge regarding these biometric relationships can be relevant in the management and conservation of the local fishes and fisheries.     

A new cajaro catfish (Siluriformes: Pimelodidae:Phractocephalus) from the Late Miocene of southwestern Amazonia and its relationship to °Phractocephalus nassi of the Urumaco Formation

A new fossil species of the living catfish genusPhractocephalus is described from fluvial Sediments of late Miocene age in Acre State, Brazil and the Madre de Dios region, Peru. †Phractocephalus acreornatus n. sp., is known from a complete neurocranium with associated Weberian complex vertebrae and posttemporal-supracleithra, and several isolated skeletal elements. °Phractocephalus acreornatus is diagnosed by the following combination of characters: 1) anterior half of supraoccipital, frontals and sometimes mesethmoid with coarse parallel ridges and sulci in addition to reticulating ridges and subcircular pits; 2) mesethmoid very broad and coarsely ornamented; 3) lateral ethmoid projecting anteriorly above palatine condyle into olfactory capsule, its anterolateral margin convex and fluted, and its orbital notch reduced; 4) supraoccipital process long, concealing Weberian vertebrae in dorsal view; 5) opercle covered with rough, reticulating ridges and pits; 6) interopercle relatively deep, its outer side coarsely ornamented; 7) pectoral spine shaft ornamented with reticulating ridges and pits. Variability of the form of the much expanded supraoccipital process inPhractocephalus is evaluated for its taxonomic significance. Although °P.acreornatus is distinct from both modernP. hemloliopterus and fossil °P. nassi, like most Miocene fossil fishes from South America, this extinct species is closely similar to its relatives. Available characters provide evidence for a close relationship between °P. acreornatus and °P. nassi from the Urumaco Formation, Venezuela. The provenance of these late Miocene catfishes in lowland western Amazonia and north-central South America is congruent with paleogeographic modeis positing a large, north flowing “Paleo-Amazon-Orinoco” river System in the Andean foreland basin during the Neogene.      

Bird diversity, birdwatching tourism and conservation in Peru: a geographic analysis

In the face of the continuing global biodiversity loss, it is important not only to assess the need for conservation, through e.g. gap analyses, but also to seek practical solutions for protecting biodiversity. Environmentally and socially sustainable tourism can be one such solution. We present a method to spatially link data on conservation needs and tourism-based economic opportunities, using bird-related tourism in Peru as an example. Our analysis highlighted areas in Peru where potential for such projects could be particularly high. Several areas within the central and northern Andean regions, as well as within the lowland Amazonian regions of Madre de Dios and Loreto emerge as promising for this type of activity. Mechanisms to implement conservation in these areas include e.g. conservation and ecotourism concessions, private conservation areas, and conservation easements. Some of these mechanisms also offer opportunities for local communities seeking to secure their traditional land ownership and use rights. (Spanish language abstract, Abstract S1).     

Integrative taxonomy reveals cryptic Amazonian species of Pristimantis (Anura: Strabomantidae)

Hypotheses on the taxonomic status of two Bolivian Pristimantis with taxonomic problems are assessed by an integrative taxonomic approach that integrates three independent lines of evidence: external morphology, prezygotic reproductive barriers (advertisement calls) and reciprocal monophyly (phylogenetic analyses of partial 16S mtDNA sequences). Central Andean Bolivian populations previously assigned to either P. peruvianus or P. dundeei, and lowland Amazonian populations from southern Peru and northern Bolivia previously considered P. peruvianus do not correspond to these species. Indeed, multivariate analyses of qualitative and quantitative morphological and bioacoustic characters, and phylogenetic analyses support the hypothesis that they represent different, previously unknown, cryptic lineages. They are herein described as new species. The former is a sibling species of P. fenestratus that inhabits the Amazonian and semideciduous forests of the Andean foothills in central Bolivia. The latter is sibling to the Andean species P. danae and is parapatric to it in the Amazonian lowland forests and adjacent foothills of northern Bolivia, southern Peru and adjacent Brazil. Most species of Neotropical frogs, and especially Pristimantis, have been described by using external qualitative morphological characters only. An extended integrative taxonomic approach, as exemplified herein, may lead to the discovery of many other cryptic and sibling lineages that would increase the species numbers of tropical areas. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 155 , 97–122.     

A New Green Species of Frog,Genus Eleutherodactylus,from Bolivia and Perú (Amphibia,Anura, Leptodactylidae)

Eleutherodactylus olivaceus sp. n., a member of the E. unistrigatus group is described. The new species is known from montane rainforests of the Departamento Cochabamba, Bolivia, as well as from lowland rainforest of the Departamento Madre de Dios, Perú. E. olivaceus is mainly characterized by its predominantly olive green dorsal color and a papilla on the tip of the snout. Advertisement call and habitat of E. olivaceus are described. The occurrence of Eleutherodactylus mendax in Bolivia is briefly discussed.     

Taxonomic revision of the South American fish genus Chalceus Cuvier (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Characiformes) with the description of three new species

The Neotropical characid fishes of the genus Chalceus Cuvier, 1817, are reviewed. In total, five species are recognized (including three new species). Chalceus epakros sp. nov. is the most widespread geographically, occurring in many rivers of the Amazon basin, the Río Orinoco and in the Essequibo River drainage in Guyana. Chalceus guaporensis sp. nov. is restricted to the upper Rio Madeira, Rio Guaporé and Río Madre de Dios, of Brazil, Bolivia and Peru, respectively. Chalceus spilogyros sp. nov. occurs only in the Rio Trombetas, lower Rio Tapajós and lower Rio Madeira drainages. Chalceus macrolepidotus Cuvier occurs in the Rio Negro drainage, middle and lower Río Orinoco basin and in the rivers of the Atlantic slopes of the Guianas, and Chalceus erythrurus Cope in the Rio Amazonas and Rio Solimões to Río Ucayali drainage in Peru. Chalceus ararapeera Cuvier & Valenciennes and Creagrutus pellegrini Puyo are considered synonyms of C. macrolepidotus , and Pellegrinina heterolepis Fowler is placed into the synonymy of C. erythrurus . Characters pertaining to the monophyly of Chalceus are discussed and a key to species is presented.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 140 , 103−135.     

New data on Neotropical Scolytus Geoffroy, 1762 with description of five new species from Peru (Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytinae)

Five new species of Scolytus Geoffroy, 1762 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) are described from Peru, namely Scolytus woodi, Scolytus carveli, Scolytus vagabundus, Scolytus lindemani, Scolytus mozolevskae .The following new synonym is established: Scolytus angustatus Browne, 1970 (= Scolytus facialis Schedl, 1973, syn. n.) New records of the Scolytus species in Loreto, Junin ,Cusco and Madre de Dios Provinces are given and the biology of the genus representatives is discussed.     

New platyrrhine monkeys from the Solimões Formation (late Miocene, Acre State, Brazil)

We report here a new fossil primate from the late Miocene of Brazil. The material consists of a lower first molar and a maxilla with P3-4. The fossils were collected in the Solim?es Formation at the locality of Patos, upper Acre River, Acre State, Brazil. The locality is assigned to the Huayquerian South American Land Mammal Age based on faunal content (late Miocene; dated to between 9 and 6 Ma). The new material is the oldest known occurrence of fossil primates in Brazil and is recognized as a new genus and species, Solimoea acrensis. Solimoea is the oldest known member of the ateline subfamily, which includes the living genera Ateles, Lagothrix, and Brachyteles. By analogy with the molar structures and diets of extant platyrrhines, Solimoea primarily had a diet of fruit, perhaps similar to that of the spider monkey, Ateles. Two other primate teeth described previously from the same formation in Bolivia document the occurrence of alouattines and cebines. One of those specimens is a late Miocene representative of the middle Miocene Colombian genus Stirtonia. The other represents one of the largest known platyrrhine primates, for which is erected a new primate genus, Acrecebus fraileyi.     

The Evolutionary History and Genetic Diversity of Kinkajous, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Potos flavus</Emphasis> (Carnivora,Procyonidae)

The genus Potos (Procyonidae) is currently recognized as a monotypic genus comprising the single species Potos flavus, the kinkajou. Kinkajous are widely distributed throughout forested habitats of tropical Central and South America, extending from eastern Brazil across central Bolivia, eastern Peru, northern Ecuador, Guianas, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, and then through Central America and into western Mexico. The taxonomic history of the species is complex, with seven or eight subspecies historically recognized to acknowledge the phenotypic variation among populations. In this study, the systematics and the evolutionary history of Potos flavus were investigated based on the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b, including specimens from a large range of localities, covering most of the distribution of the species, from central Middle America (Costa Rica and Panama) through South America (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, and French Guiana). Analyses of 30 Potos flavus sequences showed 27 haplotypes that were grouped in five main clades in all phylogenetic analyses. These clades suggested a high geographic structure with specimens from (1) Costa Rica, (2) Guianas and North Brazil, (3) North Peru, (4) Ecuador and Panama, (5a) interfluves Branco-Negro rivers in the Brazilian Amazon, (5b) Eastern Atlantic Forest, (5c) Amazonian lowlands east Negro river including Bolivia, Peru, and West Brazil. Each of these clades differs from 4.5 % to 9.3 % in their genetic distance estimates, which suggests that the specific status of some of these lineages should be reconsidered. Divergence dating and biogeographic analysis suggested that crown Potos diversified in the Miocene-Pliocene in South America, and geographic barriers, such as savannas and rivers, may have played a significant role in the kinkajou diversification.     

Elevated mercury concentrations in humans of Madre de Dios, Peru

The enormous increase in practically unregulated mining in Madre de Dios Peru is leading to massive release of liquid elemental mercury to the environment. Rapidly increasing global prices for gold are causing a massive upsurge in artisanal mining in the Peruvian Amazon, considered to be one of the most biodiverse places on the planet. This study identifies the current levels of mercury in the human population, through identifying levels of total mercury in human hair in mining zones of Madre de Dios Department and in the nearby city of Puerto Maldonado. A regression analysis reveals that fish consumption, gender, and location of residence were significant indicators of mercury levels; while duration of residence and age had no significant relationship to mercury levels. Increased fish consumption levels were the strongest indicators of increased total mercury levels across the entire population. The levels of total mercury in hair was significantly (α = 0.05) higher in mining zones, than Puerto Maldonado. In both areas men had significantly higher levels than women, likely due to a difference in metabolism or varying levels of direct involvement in gold mining- a male predominated industry. This is the first study to show the health threat that mercury poses to this region, however further research needs to be done to gain a more refined understanding of the predominant routes of exposure in this population.     

Revision of Ticorea Aubl. (Rutaceae, Galipeinae)

Ticorea comprises five species, which occur in the Guianas, throughout the Amazonian basin, and on the lower eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Two of the five are described here as new: T. diandra, from eastern Ecuador and adjacent Peru, and T. froesii, from Maranhão and Pará, Brazil.     

Population status of Andean Condors in central and southern Bolivia

Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus) are a Near Threatened species that was formerly distributed along the entire length of the Andes from western Venezuela to Tierra del Fuego. Populations have been severely reduced north of Peru, but several thousand Andean Condors still exist in the southern portion of their range in Argentina and Chile. Little is known, however, about the size of the Andean Condor population in the central part of their range in Peru and Bolivia. From June to September 2012, we used feeding stations to attract Andean Condors and estimate the size and structure of the population in the eastern Andes of central and southern Bolivia. We estimated a minimum population of 253 condors, an adult male‐to‐female ratio of 1:0.6, an immature male‐to‐female ratio of 1:0.9, and an adult‐to‐immature ratio of 1:1.1. At our five survey areas, estimated abundance ranged from 15 to 100 condors per area. Males outnumbered females in three areas and the opposite was true in two areas. Our estimated adult‐to‐immature ratio, overall and in each area, suggests that the populations could be reproducing at a high rate. As previously observed in other Andean Condor populations, skewed sex ratios could be associated with differences between sexes and age classes in habitat selection. Although our results suggest that Bolivian populations of Andean Condors are still reasonably large, population monitoring is urgently needed, including use of feeding stations throughout the entire Bolivian range of the species and intensive searches for roosting and nesting sites.     

Spatial complexity in fragmenting Amazonian rainforests: Do feedbacks from edge effects push forests towards an ecological threshold?

Deforestation and resulting landscape fragmentation are important concerns in many tropical areas. Deforestation is a complex process with many potential feedback loops, many of which are ignored in models that attempt to interpolate forest loss based on past deforestation rates. In addition, most ecological studies of the impacts of deforestation have focused on landscapes that are already fragmented. These studies ignore the fact that edge effects, such as anthropogenic fire, reach their maximum well before habitat connectivity is lost and may create positive feedbacks that result in further fragmentation. We developed a simple model to explore the potential influence of edge effects on fragmentation rates and used remotely sensed data from the MAP (Madre de Dios, Acre, and Pando) region of the Brazilian Amazon to parameterize the relationships of interest. Under reasonable real-world parameter combinations, edge effects can have a significant impact on deforestation rates, supporting the hypothesis that the true tipping point in a forest to pasture regime shift occurs earlier (i.e., ∼50% forest loss) than analysis of a loss in connectivity would suggest (i.e., ∼60% forest loss). Our results have important implications for understanding deforestation, edge-driven processes, regime shifts, and the management of complex pattern-process relationships.     

Population analysis using the nuclear white gene detects Pliocene/Pleistocene lineage divergence within Anopheles nuneztovari in South America

Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) nuneztovari Gabaldón (Diptera: Culicidae), a locally important malaria vector in some regions of South America, has been hypothesized to consist of at least two cryptic incipient species. We investigated its phylogeographic structure in several South American localities to determine the number of lineages and levels of divergence using the nuclear white gene, a marker that detected two recently diverged genotypes in the primary Neotropical malaria vector Anopheles darlingi Root. In An. nuneztovari, five distinct lineages (1-5) were elucidated: (1) populations from northeastern and central Amazonia; (2) populations from Venezuela east and west of the Andes; (3) populations from Colombia and Venezuela west of the Andes; (4) southeastern and western Amazonian Brazil populations, and (5) southeastern and western Amazonian Brazil and Bolivian populations. There was a large amount of genetic differentiation among these lineages. The deepest and earliest divergence was found between lineage 3 and lineages 1, 2 and 4, which probably accounts for the detection of lineage 3 in some earlier studies. The multiple lineages within Amazonia are partially congruent with previous mtDNA and ITS2 data, but were undetected in many earlier studies, probably because of their recent (Pleistocene) divergence and the differential mutation rates of the markers. The estimates for the five lineages, interpreted as recently evolved or incipient species, date to the Pleistocene and Pliocene. We hypothesize that the diversification in An. nuneztovari is the result of an interaction between the Miocene/Pliocene marine incursion and Pleistocene climatic changes leading to refugial isolation. The identification of cryptic lineages in An. nuneztovari could have a significant impact on local vector control measures.     

Predicting the Distribution of the Amphibian Pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the New World1

One application of ecological niche modeling is predicting suitable areas for the establishment of invasive species. Herein, I model the fundamental niche of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a pathogen linked to amphibian declines on several continents. Niche models were generated with the Genetic Algorithm of Rule‐Set Prediction using point distribution data of the pathogen and digital maps of environmental variables integrated in a GIS environment. The distribution of regions suitable for B. dendrobatidis in the New World is extensive and includes significant portions of: (1) Sierra Madre Occidental pine‐oak forest; (2) Sonoran and Sinaloan dry forest; (3) Veracruz moist forest; (4) Central America east from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; (5) Caribbean Islands; (6) temperate forest in Chile and western Argentina south of latitude 30°S; (7) Andes above 1000 m of altitude in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador; (8) eastern slopes of the Andes in Peru and Bolivia; (9) Brazilian Atlantic forest; (10) Uruguay, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina; (11) southwestern and Madeira‐Tapajós Amazonian tropical rainforests. The regions with the highest suitability for B. dendrobatidis include habitats that contain the world's most diverse amphibian faunas. Models were built with New World localities, but also showed strong predictability for B. dendrobatidis localities in the Old World. Out of a total of 59 reported Old World localities for B. dendrobatidis, 56 occurred within regions with high predicted suitability. I also present analyses of the environmental envelope of B. dendrobatidis and discuss the implications of the results for the conservation of amphibians in the neotropics.     

A new species of Bricelochlorops Paganelli and the first record of Urubambina rufa (Duda) (Diptera: Chloropidae) from Brazil

The subfamily Chloropinae comprises about 442 described species, with only one species recorded from the Brazilian Amazon. The genus Bricelochlorops Paganelli was represented by a unique species from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The species Urubambina rufa (Duda) is the only species of the genus Urubambina Paganelli and has been recorded only from Peru. A new species of Bricelochlorops, B. celutae sp. nov., is described here and Urubambina rufa is recorded for the first time in Brazil. Both species were collected in the state of Acre. A key to species of Bricelochlorops is provided.     

Variation in tropical bird survival across longitude and guilds: a case study from the Amazon

Survival estimates of tropical birds have been used to examine life‐history variation across latitudes and dietary guilds. Here, we provide apparent survival estimates of 31 rainforest species from central Amazonian Brazil and compare our results with estimates from Ecuador, Peru (western Amazonia) and French Guiana (eastern Amazonia) to examine geographic variation in demography. Our averaged annual survival estimate for central Amazonian species (?= 0.59, SE = 0.10) was concordant with previously published estimates from the western Amazon (?= 0.58, SE = 0.02), and eastern Amazon (?= 0.63, SE = 0.06). Two predominate demographic patterns were detected across the study areas: within species, survival was highest or lowest in eastern or western Amazonia, but rarely in central Amazonia. The most striking demographic variation was exhibited by Pithys albifrons, for which apparent survival estimates were nearly twice as high in eastern Amazonia (?= 0.80, SE = 0.06) than in western Amazonia (?= 0.42, SE = 0.06) but intermediate in central Amazonia (?= 0.54, SE = 0.04). Although variation in survival may be associated with differences in life history characteristics, our analysis of flocking guild, body size, and nest architecture revealed only moderate differences in survival associated with nest architecture. These results suggest that geographic variation in population processes may be significant for widespread Amazonian species.     

Demography of the Giant Otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) in Manu National Park,South-Eastern Peru: Implications for Conservation

The giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) is an endangered semi-aquatic carnivore of South America. We present findings on the demography of a population inhabiting the floodplain of Manu National Park, south-eastern Peru, arising from 14 annual dry season censuses over a 16 year period. The breeding system of territorial groups, including only a single breeding female with non-reproductive adult ‘helpers’, resulted in a low intrinsic rate of increase (0.03) and a slow recovery from decades of hunting for the pelt trade. This is explained by a combination of factors: (1) physiological traits such as late age at first reproduction and long generation time, (2) a high degree of reproductive skew, (3) small litters produced only once a year, and (4) a 50% mortality between den emergence and age of dispersal, as well as high mortality amongst dispersers (especially males). Female and male giant otters show similar traits with respect to average reproductive life-spans (female 5.4 yrs., male 5.2 yrs.) and average cub productivity (female 6.9, male 6.7 cubs per lifetime); the longest reproductive life spans were 11 and 13 years respectively. Individual reproductive success varied substantially and depended mainly on the duration of dominance tenure in the territory. When breeding females died, the reproductive position in the group was usually occupied by sisters or daughters (n = 11), with immigrant male partners. Male philopatry was not observed. The vulnerability of the Manu giant otter population to anthropogenic disturbance emphasises the importance of effective protection of core lake habitats in particular. Riverine forests are the most endangered ecosystem in the Department of Madre de Dios due to the concentration of gold mining, logging and agricultural activities in floodplains, highlighting the need for a giant otter habitat conservation corridor along the Madre de Dios River.