Longitudinal changes of dominance rank among the females of the Koshima group of Japanese monkeys

The changes of dominance rank among female Japanese monkeys of the Koshima group over a period of 29 years from 1957 were studied. The dominance rank order was relatively stable in the early population growing phase, while large scale-changes of dominance rank order occurred successively in the phase of population decrease brought about by the severe control of artificial feeding after 1972. Nevertheless, the rank order of several females of the highest status was stable. Furthermore, the reproductive success of these highest status females was high (Mori, 1979a;Watanabe et al., in prep.). Divergence of the dominance rank order fromKawamura's rules (Kawamura, 1958) was observed in the following respects: (1) Some females significantly elevated their rank depending on the leader males. (2) If mothers died when their daughters were still juveniles or nulliparous, the dominance rank of some of these offspring females was significantly lower than the mother's one. However 55% of daughters which lost their mothers at a young age inherited the mother's rank. (3) Dominance among sisters whose mother had died when at least one of the daughters was under 6 years old followed the rule of youngest ascendancy in 60% (Kawamura, 1958), and in 80% when both of the daughters were nulliparous at the mother's death. The mean rate of aggressive interactions for each female with subordinates to her was calculated by dividing the total aggressive interactions between the female in question and her subordinates by the number of subordinate females to the female in question. A female which showed a high rate of aggressive interactions with her subordinates was categorized as an “Attacker”, and a female showing a lower rate was categorized as a “Non-attacker”. Similarly, categories of “Attacked”, and “Non-attacked” were distinguished by using the rate of aggressive interactions with dominant females. Several females which were once categorized in one category in a year were repeatedly categorized in the same category over different years. The “Attacked” tended to be females of higher rank, and “Non-attackers” tended to be females of lower rank. “The second-higher-status females”, were “Attacked”, and their rank was unstable. In particular, females of lower rank within the lineage of the highest rank suffered this kind of severe status. Most of the daughters of these females showed a sharp drop of rank, and died when they were still at a young age, i.e. “the second-higher-status females” displayed low fitness. “Non-attackers” were significantly “Non-attacked”; i.e. they were females which showed a non-social attitude. Females which underwent a drop of rank tended to be “Non-attackers”. The most important factor which determined the females' rank was the memory of their dominance relations under the influence of their mother [dependent rank (Kawai, 1958)] in their early life during development. This finding corresponds well with the results in baboons obtained byWalter (1980); the target females of aggressive interactions by adolescent females were determined by the rank of the mothers when these adolescent females were born.     

A relational theory of biological systems II

The general Theory of Categories is applied to the study of the (M, R)-systems previously defined. A set of axioms is provided which characterize “abstract (M, R)-systems”, defined in terms of the Theory of Categories. It is shown that the replication of the repair components of these systems may be accounted for in a natural way within this framework, thereby obviating the need for anad hoc postulation of a replication mechanism. A time-lag structure is introduced into these abstract (M, R)-systems. In order to apply this structure to a discussion of the “morphology” of these systems, it is necessary to make certain assumptions which relate the morphology to the time lags. By so doing, a system of abstract biology is in effect constructed. In particular, a formulation of a general Principle of Optimal Design is proposed for these systems. It is shown under what conditions the repair mechanism of the system will be localized into a spherical region, suggestive of the nuclear arrangements in cells. The possibility of placing an abstract (M, R)-system into optimal form in more than one way is then investigated, and a necessary and sufficient condition for this occurrence is obtained. Some further implications of the above assumptions are then discussed.     

Rank and age related feeding strategy observed through field experiments in the Koshima group of Japanese macaques

The feeding process of Japanese monkeys on soy beans which were scattered over a sandy beach on Koshima islet was studied. Younger monkeys were able to pick up more beans when 8 kg of beans were divided and given two times (“two times feeding”) than when the whole amount (8 kg) of beans was given at one time (“one time feeding”). The effect of saturation of the food intake capacity in younger monkeys at the first feeding in “two times feeding” did not appear at the second feeding one hour later. The minutely intake of soy beans (feeding speed) for each age class was analyzed. The decline of feeding speed in adult females after the peak in “one time feeding” was not related to the decline in density of beans on the ground, and this decline was caused by saturation of their food intake capacity. Adult females were divided into four classes according to their dominance rank order: high, lower-high, higher-low, and low classes. The total amount of intake in “one time feeding” was far larger in the high class than in any of the other classes. The total amount of feeding in the first feeding of “two times feeding” increased in accordance with rise in the dominance rank class, and there was no relation to rank and total feeding amount in the second feeding of “two times feeding.” Differences existed in the process of feeding between the rank classes. The feeding speed of the low class was as high as that of the high class on the curve of minutely intake, while the low class stopped feeding much earlier than the high class. The lower-high class displayed a low feeding speed, and stopped feeding the latest. The order of the duration to stay and to feed in the feeding area was lower-high > high > higher-low > low, and this order did not change under the three different feeding conditions, “one time feeding,” and the first and second feedings of “two times feeding.” Adolescent females tended to stay the longest duration in the feeding area among all age classes. Both the lower-high class females and adolescent females had an unstable social status in the Koshima group, and their social status affected their feeding behaviors. The feeding behaviors were similar in attitude depending on social status, and are considered to be maintained for a fairly long time. The feeding strategy of the lower-high class, in staying a longer duration in the artificial feeding area, and departing later, may be effective under the artificial feeding conditions, but it may be a bad strategy in a natural habitat where the food is not so clumped as in artificial feeding, and where choice of other food patches is possible. The above results agree well with previous reports for the Koshima group, indicating that the rank of the lower-high class females was unstable (Mori et al., 1989), and that their reproductive success was low (Watanabe et al., 1992).     

Phalaenopsis bellina (Rchb.f.) Christenson,a segregate from P. violacea Witte (Orchidaceae: Aeridinae)

A reevaluation of floral and vegetative morphology together with data from analysis of floral fragrance and flavonoid co-pigment chemistry suggest that specific status is warranted for the two kinds ofPhalaenopsis violacea Witte known informally as the “Bornean type” and the “Malayan type.”Phalaenopsis violacea var.bellina Rchb.f. is elevated to specific rank, providing a name for the “Bornean type” plants.     

Primary culture and characteristic morphologies of neurons from the cerebral ganglion of the mud crab, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scylla paramamosain</Emphasis>

Crustacean neurons, obtained from the cerebral ganglion of the mud crab Scylla paramamosain, were successfully cultured in vitro. They maintained typical morphological characteristics and showed better outgrowth in modified Medium 199 (M199) medium than that in Liebowitz’s L-15 medium. Fetal bovine serum (FBS), muscle extracts, and hemolymph of the mud crab S. paramamosain were added as supplements. Only 20% FBS could promote neuron outgrowth, while muscle extracts and hemolymph of S. paramamosain did not improve neuron outgrowth. For cell dissociation, both collagenase type I and trypsin worked well as determined by initial cell viability and following cell outgrowth potential. More than six kinds of cells with different morphological characteristics were identified in the neuron outgrowth. They were “small cells”, “veilers”, “branchers”, “multipolar cells”, “super-large cell”, and “bipolar cells”. Among all of the cells, bipolar cells were identified for the first time in crustacean neurons culture and they could live longer than other cells. The neurons could grow for more than a week before retraction and eventual degradation.     

Structural feature of sorghum chloroplast psbA gene and regulation effects of its 5'-noncoding region*

Comparative analysis reveals remarkahle homology between the sequences of bothpsbA gene nucleotides and the inferred amino acids of sorghum, a C₄ plant, and those of rice, a C₃ plant. The 5′-noncoding region of sorghumpsbA gene contains the conservative promoter elements, “—35” element and “—10” element, like the prokaryote and the promoter element, TATA box, like the eukaryote. As compared with that of the rice, an extra sequence of 7 bp is found in the leader sequence of the mRNA in the former. Using anin vitro system, it has been demonstrated that protein factor exists in sorghum chloroplast protein extract which specifically hinds to the 5′-noncoding region ofpsbA gene. Measurement of the expression of luciferase shows a 2–5 time greater reaction of the expression plasmids pALqs which contain leader region of sorghumpsbA gene than that of the expression plasmids pALqr which contain leader region of ricepsbA gene inE. coli. Project supported by the Chinese National “863” and “973” Projects     

Expression of phytoene synthase gene (Psy) is enhanced during fruit ripening of Cara Cara navel orange (Citrus sinensis Osbeck)

Citrus is an important fruit crop as regards accumulation of carotenoids. In plant carotenoid biosynthesis, phytoene synthase gene (Psy) plays a key role in catalyzing the head-to-head condensation of geranylgeranyl diphosphate molecules to produce colorless phytoene. In the present paper, we reported the phytoene contents determination and characterization of Psy during fruit ripening of “Washington” navel orange and its red-fleshed mutant “Cara Cara”. Results showed that phytoene was exclusively accumulated in peel and pulp of “Cara Cara”. Although phytoene was observed accumulating with fruit ripening of “Cara Cara”, the contents in pulp were 10 times higher than those in peel. The isolated two Psy cDNAs were both 1520 bp in full length, containing 436 deduced amino acid residues, with a different amino acid at 412th. Genomic hybridization results showed that one or two copies might be present in “Cara Cara” and “Washington” genomes. During “Cara Cara” and “Washington” fruit coloration, expression of Psy was observed to be up-regulated, as revealed by tissue specific profiles in the flavedo, albedo, segment membrane and juice sacs. However, Psy expression in albedo of “Cara Cara” was higher than that in “Washington”, as evidenced by phytoene accumulation in the peel.     

Mycobacterium leprae — The outer lipoidal surface

There is now a considerable body of evidence to suggest that the phthiocerol-containing lipids, including the phenolic glycolipids, comprise the so-called “peribacillary substance”, “spherical droplets”, “foamy structures” and “capsular materials” ofMycobacterium leprae. Thus, the phthiocerol-containing lipid capsule may be directly responsible for the intracellular survival ofMycobacterium leprae.     

Cloning, expression and protective immunity evaluation of the full-length cDNA encoding succinate dehydrogenase iron-sulfur protein of Schistosoma japonicum

1071-bp fragment was obtained from the Schistosoma japonicum (Chinese strain) adult cDNA library after the 3′ and 5′ ends of the incomplete expression sequence tag (EST) of succinate dehydrogenase iron-sulfur protein of Schistosoma japonicum (SjSDISP) were amplified by the anchored PCR with 2 pairs of primers designed according to the EST of SjSDISP and the sequence of multiclone sites of the library vector. Sequence analysis indicated that the fragment was a full-length cDNA with a complete open reading frame (ORF), encoding 278 amino acid residues. The fragment was cloned into prokary- otic expression vector pQE30, and subsequently sequenced and expressed in Escherichia coli. SDS-PAGE and Western-blot analyses showed that the recombinant protein was about 32 kD and could be recognized by the polyclonal antisera from rabbits immunized with Schistosoma japonicum adult worm antigen. Compared with the FCA controls, mice vaccinated with rSjSDISP (test) or rSjGST (posi- tive control) all revealed high levels of specific antibody and significant reduction in worm burden, liver eggs per gram (LEPG), fecal eggs per gram (FEPG) and intrauterine eggs. These results suggest that SjSDISP may be a novel and partially protective vaccine candidate against schistosomiasis. In contrast to the worm burden reduction rate, the higher degree of egg reduction rate in the test group also sug- gested that SjSDISP vaccine may primarily play a role in anti-embryonation or anti-fecundity immunity.     

Dominance,Coloration, and Social and Sexual Behavior in Male Drills <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mandrillus leucophaeus</Emphasis>

Sexual selection has driven the evolution and elaboration of a wide variety of displays and ornaments in male nonhuman primates, including capes, cheek flanges, and sexual coloration. Among the most sexually dimorphic of all primates is the drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus), the males of which can be 3 times the mass of females, possess large canines, and exhibit extremely bright sexual skin coloration. However, the function of male coloration in this species has never been examined. Here, we present data on male color (measured objectively using digital photography), dominance rank, measures of male-female association, and key sexual behaviors, of adult male drills (n = 17) living in four semi free-ranging enclosures at the Drill Rehabilitation and Breeding Center in Nigeria. We test the hypothesis that male coloration is a badge of status, indicating dominance rank, and the hypothesis that male coloration attracts females. We found that male coloration did indicate rank, and that high ranking, strongly colored males were more likely to associate with adult females, and more specifically with fully tumescent females. These males also engaged in more sexual activity. However, measures of male-female association and sexual behaviors were not related to male color once rank had been taken into consideration; i.e., for males of a given rank, females did not prefer those that were more colorful. We discuss the results in light of what is known about the wild drill social system, in which unfamiliar individuals may come together in “supergroups,” and in which quality indicators of competitive ability may be particularly important.     

Basidiocarp development inCoprinus macrorhizus

The dikaryon #5026 (A2B2)+#5132 (A7B7) of the basidiomyceteCoprinus macrorhizus was treated with ultraviolet light (UV),N-methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (NG), and 5-bromouracil (BU) in order to induced developmental variations in fruiting. Among a total of 11,383 isolates, 742 were homokaryons. Fruiting test was made with the remaining 10,641 dikaryotic isolates, of which 1,594 showed abnormality in basidiocarp development. Both UV and NG were very efficient in inducing such variations, but BU was not. The induced variations were classified into seven basic types as follows: 1) “knotless”, in which hyphal knots, the first sign of fruiting, do not differentiate; 2) “primordiumless,” in which hyphal knots are formed, but no further development occurs; 3) “maturationles”, in which primordia are formed, but the maturation of primordia into adult fruit bodies does not occur; 4) “elongationless”, in which the elongation of stipe is blocked, and a basidiocarp with a very short stipe is produced; 5) “expansionless,” in which pilei do not expand normally; 6) “sporeless,” in which the formation of basidiospores is blocked and albinic pilei bearing none or only a small amount of spores are produced; and 7) “autolysisless,” in which the autolysis of pilei does not appear to occur. It has been noticed that the four steps of maturation, i.e. stipe elongation, pileus expansion, spore formation, and perhaps pileus autolysis, can proceed independently. Compound types of variations such as “elongation-expansionless,” “elongation-sporeless,” “expansion-sporeless,” and “elongation-expansion-sporeless” were also induced. UV treatment induced maturationless at the highest rate, while NG treatment sporeless. Contributions from the Division of Plant Morphology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Okayama University. No. 117.     

Evolved psychology in a novel environment

The human “environment of evolutionary adaptedness” can only be inferred indirectly. In contrast, the behavior of some nonhuman animals can be compared among “natural” and various altered environments. As an example, male immigration tactics in unprovisioned versus provisioned macaque (Macaca) populations are compared using Tooby and Cosmides’s (1992) framework for evolutionary functional analysis. In unprovisioned populations, social groups contain few males, and immigrant male takeovers of alpha rank occur frequently. In provisioned populations, groups contain many males, and males almost invariably enter social groups at very low rank and rise in rank only as more dominant males emigrate or die. Male conformity to the “seniority rule” is hypothesized to represent the behavioral output of an evolved decision-making algorithm (psychological mechanism) that takes into account (1) the net payoff of each rank in the dominance hierarchy and (2) the power of male group size as a predictor of the likelihood of successful immigrant takeover. Joseph H. Manson is Assistant Professor of Anthropology at the University of California, Los Angeles. His research interests are social relationships in nonhuman primates and humans, with particular emphases on mate choice, courtship tactics, intrasexual competition, and (currently) mother-infant relationships and infant handling. He has conducted fieldwork on rhesus macaques at Cayo Santiago and white-faced capuchins in Costa Rica.     

Selection of Reference Genes for Normalizing Gene Expression During Seed Priming and Germination Using qPCR in Zea mays and Spinacia oleracea

Quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qPCR) has been widely used to investigate gene expression during seed germination, a process involving seed transition from dry/physiologically inactive to hydrated/active state. This transition may result in altered expression of many housekeeping genes (HKGs), conventionally used as internal controls, thereby posing a challenge about selection of HKGs in such scenarios. The objectives of this study included identifying valid reference genes for seed priming and germination studies, both of which involve the transition of seed hydration status, and assessing whether or not findings derived from the “seed model” used in this study would also be applicable to other plant species. Eight commonly used HKGs were evaluated in maize seeds during hydropriming and germination. Using Bestkeeper, geNorm, and NormFinder, we provided a rank of stability for these HKGs. Actdf, UBQ, βtub, 18S, Act, and GAPDH were adjudged as valid internal controls by geNorm and NormFinder. Under the second objective, we conducted a case study with spinach seeds collected during osmopriming and germination. Our results indicate that the conclusions derived from maize were applicable to spinach as well, in that 18S exhibited greater expression stability than GAPDH in osmoprimed and germinated seeds; this held true even under stress conditions. While both of these genes were rejected by BestKeeper, we found that 18S exhibited stable expression when “dry” and “hydrated” seeds were analyzed as separate data sets. Although this approach precludes the comparison between “hydrated” and “dry” seeds, it still provides effective comparison among samples of same hydration status.     

Factors affecting the phytoaccumulation of weathered, soil-borne organic contaminants: analyses at the ex Planta and in Planta sides of the plant root

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the soil–plant system were tracked from their origin in the bulk soil, into the rhizosphere soil pore water, to the xylem sap, and up to the aerial plant tissue. Specifically, the profiles of both chiral and achiral components of technical chlordane along this continuum were examined in detail for members of the Cucurbitaceae family: Cucurbita pepo L. subsp. pepo (“Black Beauty” true zucchini), Cucurbita pepo L. intersubspecific cross (“Zephyr” summer squash), and Cucumis sativus (“Marketmore” cucumber). The experiments were based on the use of mini-rhizotrons for collection and analysis of rhizosphere soil pore water for organic pollutants, as well as for low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs). In addition, the xylem sap and aerial plant tissue for intact, homografted, and heterografted C. pepo “Black Beauty” and C. sativus “Marketmore” plants were compared. The data indicate that profiles of the chlordane components in the pore water show no alteration in chiral patterns from those in the bulk soil and may be interpreted by physicochemical partitioning coefficients. Low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs) in the rhizosphere were observed to have a minor impact on bioavailability of the pollutants. However, once the pollutants cross the root membrane, major distinctive uptake and enantioselective patterns are apparent in the xylem sap, which are maintained in the aerial tissue. These in planta patterns are based on plant genotype. Specifically, grafting experiments with compatible heterografts of C. pepo and C. sativus establish that the chiral patterns are fully dependent on the plant root. The genotypic dependence of the data suggests possible mechanisms for phytoaccumulation.     

Social behavior of the emperor tamarin in captivity: Components of agonistic display and the agonistic network

Agonistic behavior was studied longitudinally for 16 months in an intact family groups of captive emperor tamarins (Saguinus imperator subgrisescens) using methods from quantitative ethology and social network analysis. A motivational analysis of the components of agonistic display revealed the relative strength of each component along a continuum from strongly dominant to strongly subordinate. Tabulations of exchanges of strongly dominant and strongly subordinate components in interactions among the tamarins revealed an agonistic network (“dominance hierarchy”) that approached, but did not quite reach, the ideal state of a transitive order (“linear dominance hierarchy”). The frequency with which individual tamarins long called and scent marked was not closely correlated with their position (“dominance rank”) in the agonistic network. Instead, individuals undergoing change in status long called and scent marked frequently, irrespective of their rank.     

A quantum-theoretic approach to enzyme specificity: Proposals for a new type of biochemical control mechanism

A quantum-theoretic approach to the problem of enzymic specificity is presented. The concept of a “measuring system” analogized with the enzyme is utilized. Along these lines a quantum mechanical hypothesis for the mechanism of enzyme reactions was advanced (Enzymologia,35, 117–130, 1968). In the measuring process an ℐ-observable, linked to the proper values of the substrate'sA ₁...A _m observables will indicate the state of the measuring apparatus. On the corresponding Hilbert space of the enzymesubstrate complexH _ES , through the respective statistical operatorU _ES we get a “state” vector [s, a]. Theng:Γ _S xΓ _E →Γ _ES , that is, to an oriented pair 〈s, a〉 ∈Γ _S xΓ _E will correspond a “state” vector [s, a], and to a proper valuei _k of ℐ will correspond, throughg, the respective equivalence classes of Г-spaces. Introducing the concept of enzyme-substrate complex entropyL _ES , a theorem is demonstrated asserting thatL _S =L _ES -L _E + 1/2kn wheren is the number of the degrees of freedom which may fluctuate. The values ofL _ES are denoted “specific values,” and it is demonstrated that a microphysical systemS may be a substrate specific forE, if and only if it can realize one of theL _ES specific values. Along these lines a model of a stochastic process for the enzymic reaction is constructed, and the set of Kolmogorov equations for the respective probabilities is derived. When a “perturbation” is induced in our model, an interesting prediction concerning the fluctuations in the kinetics of the corresponding enzyme is obtained. A relevant experimental proof ensued from these theoretical considerations. When a “gentle perturbation” was induced in a substrate by mild X-ray or UV-irradiations, an interesting oscillatory behavior of enzymic activity was recorded. A biochemical control mechanism is constructed (a simple “flip-flop” type) utilizing nonoverlapping oscillations in the activity of two enzymes at a key metabolic intermediate level. Eventually, a relevant experimental proof for the respective control model is presented.     

Iota-carrageenan from a newly farmed, rare variety of eucheumoid seaweed—“endong”

A seaweed with the local name “endong” is a rare eucheumoid variety that has recently been farmed in Tawi-Tawi, southern Philippines. Local farmers describe it as “eel-like” because of its long, slender and smooth thalli. Being somewhat similar in appearance to the dominantly farmed seaweed “tambalang” (Kappaphycus alvarezii var. tambalangii), farmers mix their harvests of “endong” with those of “tambalang”. We analyzed the hydrocolloid extract from “endong” using spectroscopic and chemical techniques. The extract’s infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H and ¹³C) spectra, and sulfate and 3,6-anhydrogalactose contents revealed carrageenan of the iota-type, similar to extracts from another farmed species, Eucheuma denticulatum. This result implies that “endong” carrageenan exhibits physico-chemical properties different from those of kappa-carrageenan of “tambalang”. The findings of this study are of significance to the seaweed industry, as carrageenan quality problems could potentially arise from a mixed harvest. Seaweed farmers are advised to separate their harvests of “endong” and “tambalang”. Presented at the 19th International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan     

Systematics and genetic variation in commercial shape Kappaphycus and shape Eucheuma (Solieriaceae, Rhodophyta)

The systematics and taxonomy of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma (Solieriaceae) is confused and difficult due to morphological plasticity, lack of adequate characters to identify species and commercial names of convenience. These taxa are geographically widely dispersed through cultivation. Commercial, wild and herbarium sources were analysed; molecular markers provided insights into taxonomy and genetic variation, and where sources of genetic variation may be located. The mitochondrial cox2-3 and plastidal RuBisCo spacers were sequenced. There is a clear genetic distinction between K. alvarezii (“cottonii”) and K. striatum (“sacol”) samples. Kappaphycus alvarezii from Hawaii and some samples from Africa are also genetically distinct. Our data also show that all currently cultivated K. alvarezii from all over the world have a similar mitochondrial haplotype. Within Eucheuma denticulatum (“spinosum”) most African samples are again genetically distinct. Our data also suggest that currently cultivated E. denticulatum may have been “domesticated” several times, whereas this is not evident for the cultivated K. alvarezii. The present markers used do not distinguish all the morpho-types known in cultivation (e.g. var. tambalang, “giant” type) but do suggest that these markers may be useful to assess introductions and species identification in samples.