Metabolic engineering of yeast: the perils of auxotrophic hosts

Auxotrophic mutants may have physiological alterations and sensitivities which are not generally recognized. Such features are shown here by observations that final cell densities attained by several leucine-auxotrophic Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains depend differently on the initial leucine concentration in the medium. Furthermore, complementing such auxotrophic strains with the plasmid-based LEU2 selection marker resulted in different final cell densities than chromosomal expression of LEU2 in the otherwise isogenic, prototrophic strains. These results warn that auxotrophic host-related physiological influences overlay any metabolic effect of a cloned gene expressed in such a host, clearly complicating interpretation of the effect of that gene's product in scientific or metabolic engineering research.     

代谢过程中相关氨基酸对高密度发酵生产腺苷蛋氨酸的影响

对清酒酵母高密度发酵生产S-腺苷-L-蛋氨酸（SAM）代谢过程中的相关氨基酸进行了考察。分别考察了十二种氨基酸对生物量和SAM产量的影响。实验发现L-胱氨酸、L-半胱氨酸、L-赖氨酸、L-组氨酸和L-蛋氨酸对SAM的积累有利,其中L-赖氨酸和L-组氨酸可以提高生物量,进而提高SAM的产量;L-胱氨酸、L-半胱氨酸和L-蛋氨酸可以提高SAM的含量,但是会抑制生物量的增长。通过3种补加方式的比较,得到最优的补加方式为：L-赖氨酸和L-组氨酸在培养基中加入,L-胱氨酸,L-半胱氨酸和L-蛋氨酸采取在发酵过程前24h流加。通过正交实验确定补加量为：L-赖氨酸为1g／L,L-组氨酸为1g／L,L-胱氨酸为1．5g／L,L-半胱氨酸为1g／L,L-蛋氨酸为1g／L。将此结果应用于5L发酵罐培养,SAM最高产量为5．53g/L,生物量为128g／L。     

Metabolic pathway analysis of a recombinant yeast for rational strain development

Elementary mode analysis has been used to study a metabolic pathway model of a recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae system that was genetically engineered to produce the bacterial storage compound poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB). The model includes biochemical reactions from the intermediary metabolism and takes into account cellular compartmentalization as well as the reversibility/irreversibility of the reactions. The reaction network connects the production and/or consumption of eight external metabolites including glucose, acetate, glycerol, ethanol, PHB, CO(2), succinate, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Elementary mode analysis of the wild-type S. cerevisiae system reveals 241 unique reaction combinations that balance the eight external metabolites. When the recombinant PHB pathway is included, and when the reaction model is altered to simulate the experimental conditions when PHB accumulates, the analysis reveals 20 unique elementary modes. Of these 20 modes, 7 produce PHB with the optimal mode having a theoretical PHB carbon yield of 0.67. Elementary mode analysis was also used to analyze the possible effects of biochemical network modifications and altered culturing conditions. When the natively absent ATP citrate-lyase activity is added to the recombinant reaction network, the number of unique modes increases from 20 to 496, with 314 of these modes producing PHB. With this topological modification, the maximum theoretical PHB carbon yield increases from 0.67 to 0.83. Adding a transhydrogenase reaction to the model also improves the theoretical conversion of substrate into PHB. The recombinant system with the transhydrogenase reaction but without the ATP citrate-lyase reaction has an increase in PHB carbon yield from 0.67 to 0.71. When the model includes both the ATP citrate-lyase reaction and the transhydrogenase reaction, the maximum theoretical carbon yield increases to 0.84. The reaction model was also used to explore the possibility of producing PHB under anaerobic conditions. In the absence of oxygen, the recombinant reaction network possesses two elementary modes capable of producing PHB. Interestingly, both modes also produce ethanol. Elementary mode analysis provides a means of deconstructing complex metabolic networks into their basic functional units. This information can be used for analyzing existing pathways and for the rational design of further modifications that could improve the system's conversion of substrate into product.     

Characterization of Avt1p as a vacuolar proton/amino acid antiporter in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Several genes for vacuolar amino acid transport were reported in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but have not well been investigated. We characterized AVT1, a member of the AVT vacuolar transporter family, which is reported to be involved in lifespan of yeast. ATP-dependent uptake of isoleucine and histidine by the vacuolar vesicles of an AVT exporter mutant was lost by introducing avt1? mutation. Uptake activity was inhibited by the V-ATPase inhibitor: concanamycin A and a protonophore. Isoleucine uptake was inhibited by various neutral amino acids and histidine, but not by γ-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, and aspartate. V-ATPase-dependent acidification of the vesicles was declined by the addition of isoleucine or histidine, depending upon Avt1p. Taken together with the data of the amino acid contents of vacuolar fractions in cells, the results suggested that Avt1p is a proton/amino acid antiporter important for vacuolar compartmentalization of various amino acids.     

Over-expression of Saccharomyces cerevisiae hsp90 enhances the virulence of this yeast in mice

Abstract Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a yeast of low pathogenic potential, is a rare but well-documented cause of invasive infections in humans. The yeast Candida albicans is a much commoner cause of significant and life-threatening infections. In such infections the heat shock protein hsp90 is an immunodominant antigen associated with protective humoral immunity. In this study it was shown that over-expression of S. cerevisiae hsp90, the amino acid sequence of which shows 84% identity to C. albicans hsp90, significantly increased the virulence of a laboratory strain of S. cerevisiae in mice, both in terms of colony counts in the kidney, liver and spleen, and in terms of mortality. This is the first direct evidence that hsp90 is a virulence factor.     

Metabolic engineering of monoterpene synthesis in yeast

Terpenoids are one of the largest and most diverse families of natural compounds. They are heavily used in industry, and the trend is toward engineering modified microorganisms that produce high levels of specific terpenoids. Most studies have focused on creating specific heterologous pathways for sesquiterpenes in Escherichia coli or yeast. We subjected the Saccharomyces cerevisiae ERG20 gene (encoding farnesyl diphosphate synthase) to a set of amino acid mutations in the catalytic site at position K197. Mutated strains have been shown to exhibit various growth rate, sterol amount, and monoterpenol-producing capacities. These results are discussed in the context of the potential use of these mutated strains for heterologous expression of monoterpenoid synthases, which was investigated using Ocimum basilicum geraniol synthase. The results obtained with up to 5 mg/L geraniol suggest a major improvement compared with previous available expression systems like Escherichia coli or yeast strains with an unmodified ERG20 gene that respectively delivered amounts in the 10 and 500 μg/L range or even a previously characterized K197E mutation that delivered amounts in the 1 mg/L range.     

High-performance liquid chromatographic analysis of amino acids in physiological fluids: on-line precolumn derivatization with o-phthaldialdehyde

A cation-sensing electrode can be used to monitor enzymatic reactions if their substrates and products differ in the ability to bind the cation. In the first method, the electrode potential vs time curve is recorded. The second, metal-stat method consists of measuring the rate at which substrate must be added to the reaction medium in order to keep the electrode potential at a constant level. These approaches have been used to assay inorganic pyrophosphatase, carboxypeptidase A, and hexokinase with the Mg2+ and Cu2+ ions as the indicators.     

Metabolic engineering of sesquiterpene metabolism in yeast

Terpenes are structurally diverse compounds that are of interest because of their biological activities and industrial value. These compounds consist of chirally rich hydrocarbon backbones derived from terpene synthases, which are subsequently decorated with hydroxyl substituents catalyzed by terpene hydroxylases. Availability of these compounds is, however, limited by intractable synthetic means and because they are produced in low amounts and as complex mixtures by natural sources. We engineered yeast for sesquiterpene accumulation by introducing genetic modifications that enable the yeast to accumulate high levels of the key intermediate farnesyl diphosphate (FPP). Co-expression of terpene synthase genes diverted the enlarged FPP pool to greater than 80 mg/L of sesquiterpene. Efficient coupling of terpene production with hydroxylation was also demonstrated by coordinate expression of terpene hydroxylase activity, yielding 50 mg/L each of hydrocarbon and hydroxylated products. These yeast now provide a convenient format for investigating catalytic coupling between terpene synthases and hydroxylases, as well as a platform for the industrial production of high value, single-entity and stereochemically unique terpenes.     

Glucose-sensing and -signalling mechanisms in yeast

Glucose has dramatic effects on the regulation of carbon metabolism and on many other properties of yeast cells. Several sensing and signalling pathways are involved. For many years attention has focussed on the main glucose-repression pathway which is responsible for the downregulation of respiration, gluconeogenesis and the transport and catabolic capacity of alternative sugars during growth on glucose. The hexokinase 2- dependent glucose-sensing mechanism of this pathway is not well understood but the downstream part of the pathway has been elucidated in great detail. Two putative glucose sensors, the Snf3 and Rgt2 non-transporting glucose carrier homologs, control the expression of many functional glucose carriers. Recently, several new components of this glucose-induction pathway have been identified. The Ras-cAMP pathway controls a wide variety of cellular properties in correlation with cellular proliferation. Glucose is a potent activator of cAMP synthesis. In this case glucose sensing is carried out by two systems, a G-protein-coupled receptor system and a still elusive glucose-phosphorylation-dependent system. The understanding of glucose sensing and signalling in yeast has made dramatic advances in recent years and has become a strong paradigm for the elucidation of nutrient-sensing mechanisms in other eukaryotic organisms.     

tRNA-targeting ribonucleases: molecular mechanisms and insights into their physiological roles

Most bacteria produce antibacterial proteins known as bacteriocins, which aid bacterial defence systems to provide a physiological advantage. To date, many kinds of bacteriocins have been characterized. Colicin has long been known as a plasmidborne bacteriocin that kills other Escherichia coli cells lacking the same plasmid. To defeat other cells, colicins exert specific activities such as ion-channel, DNase, and RNase activity. Colicin E5 and colicin D impair protein synthesis in sensitive E. coli cells; however, their physiological targets have not long been identified. This review describes our finding that colicins E5 and D are novel RNases targeting specific E. coli tRNAs and elucidates their enzymatic properties based on biochemical analyses and X-ray crystal structures. Moreover, tRNA cleavage mediates bacteriostasis, which depends on trans-translation. Based on these results and others, cell growth regulation depending on tRNA cleavage is also discussed.     

Utilization of diets amended with yeast and amino acids for the control of aflatoxicosis

Although the effects of aflatoxin on animal performance have been well established in previous studies, there are few studies reporting on the relationship between aflatoxin and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The ability of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to minimize aflatoxicosis was evaluated. An aflatoxin-free diet and six contaminated diets (400 μg kg⁻¹ aflatoxin) were formulated with five diets containing the viable yeast (Y1026 or Y904). A 28-day bioassay using 21-day-old and 60-g body weight Wistar rats was conducted. The results showed that there were no significant (P > 0.05) differences for: food consumption; daily weight gain; food conversion, and enzyme activity. Hepatic tissues from the aflatoxin control group suffered from hepatotoxicity, cellular disorganization, and hepatocyte necrosis. The inclusion of yeast or yeast and amino acids (methionine and cysteine) reduced the toxicity. A. S. Baptista received fellowship from FAPESP.     

代谢工程改造酿酒酵母合成葡萄糖二酸

葡萄糖二酸是一种高附加值的有机酸,广泛用于食品、医药和化工领域。为获得生产葡萄糖二酸的微生物细胞工厂,通过共表达小鼠来源的肌醇加氧酶(MIOX)及恶臭假单胞菌来源的醛酸脱氢酶(Udh),在酿酒酵母Saccharomyces cerevisiae CEN.PK2-1C中构建了葡萄糖二酸合成途径,产量为(28.28±3.15)mg/L。在此基础上,通过调控前体肌醇的合成途径,发现肌醇-1-磷酸合成酶(INO1)是葡萄糖二酸合成途径的限速酶,过量表达INO1,葡萄糖二酸产量达到(107.51±10.87)mg/L,提高了2.8倍。进一步弱化竞争支路中磷酸果糖激酶(PFK1)的表达,最终葡萄糖二酸的产量达到(230.22±10.75)mg/L,为进一步获得高产葡萄糖二酸细胞工厂提供基础。