Thermal unfolding process of dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase studied by fluorescence spectroscopy

The thermal unfolding pathway for dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (LipDH) isolated from Bacillus stearothermophilus was investigated focusing on the transient intermediate state characterized through time-resolved fluorescence studies. The decrease in ellipticity in the far UV region in the CD spectrum, the fluorescence spectral change of Trp-91 and FAD, and the thermal enzymatic inactivation curve consistently demonstrated that LipDH unfolded irreversibly on heat treatment at higher than 65 degrees C. LipDH took a transient intermediate state during the thermal unfolding process which could refold back into the native state. In this state, the internal rotation of FAD was activated in the polypeptide cage and correspondingly LipDH showed a peculiar conformation. The transient intermediate state of LipDH characterized in time-resolved fluorescence depolarization studies showed very similar properties to the molten-globule state, which has been confirmed in many studies on protein folding.     

Substrate-induced structural changes of the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex

The time course of the overall reaction catalyzed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex produces an unexpectedly high lag (tau = 8 S) even in the presence of saturating concentrations of its substrates. The preincubation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex with one of the substrates alone decreases the duration of this lag, and all the substrates of the pyruvate dehydrogenase component (E1) and dihydrolipoyl transacetylase component (E2) together (pyruvate, thiamine pyrophosphate, and CoA) result in the complete disappearance of the lag. The reduction of the dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase component (E3) of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex with the substrates of the complex in the absence of NAD+ produces significantly different quenching in the FAD fluorescence, and then the reduction with the substrates of E3 as dihydrolipoic acid and dithioerythritol. (The formation of FADH2 was not observed in the system.) The higher fluorescence quenching in the presence of substrates of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex compared to the effect caused by the substrates of the E3 component (dihydrolipoic acid and DTE) indicates conformational changes additionally manifested in the fluorescence properties of the enzyme complex. The substrate-induced quenching of the enzyme-bound FAD fluorescence shows biphasic kinetics. The rate constant of the slow phase is comparable with the rate constant calculated from the time duration of the lag phase observed in the overall reaction. The kinetic analysis of both intensity and anisotropy decrease of the FAD fluorescence suggests a consecutive transmittance of an all substrate-coordinated, induced conformational changes directed from the pyruvate dehydrogenase-via the lipoyl transacetylase--to the lipoyl dehydrogenase. Two simultaneous conformational effects caused by binding of the substrates can be distinguished; one of them results the fluorescence of the bound FAD to be more quenched, while the other makes the FAD more mobile. The first-order rate constants of both these conformational changes were determined. The present observations suggest that the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex exists in a partially inactive state in the absence of its substrates, and it becomes active due to conformational changes caused by the binding of its substrates.     

On the FAD-induced dimerization of apo-lipoamide dehydrogenase from Azotobacter vinelandii and Pseudomonas fluorescens. Kinetics of reconstitution

The apoenzymes of lipoamide dehydrogenase from pig heart and from Pseudomonas fluorescens were prepared at pH 2.7 and pH 4.0, respectively, using a hydrophobic interaction chromatography procedure recently developed for lipoamide dehydrogenase from Azotobacter vinelandii and other flavoproteins [Van Berkel et al. (1988) Eur. J. Biochem. 178, 197-207]. The apoenzyme from pig heart, having 5% of residual activity, shows an equilibrium between the monomeric and dimeric species. Both the yield and the degree of reconstitution of dimeric holoenzyme is 75% of starting material under optimal conditions. The kinetics of reconstitution of pig heart apoenzyme differ slightly from that obtained with the apoenzyme prepared by acid ammonium sulfate precipitation at pH 1.5 [Kalse, J. F. and Veeger, C. (1968) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 159, 244-256]. The apoenzyme from P. fluorescens is in the monomeric state and shows negligible residual activity. The yield and degree of reconstitution of the dimeric holoenzyme is more than 90% of starting material. Reconstitution of the apoenzymes from A. vinelandii and P. fluorescens involves minimally a two-step sequential process. Initial flavin-binding results in regaining of full dichloroindophenol activity, quenching of tryptophan fluorescence and strong increase of FAD fluorescence polarization. In the second step, dimerization occurs as reflected by regain of lipoamide activity, strongly increased FAD fluorescence and increased hyperchroism of the visible absorption spectrum. The kinetics of FAD-induced dimerization are strongly dependent on the apoenzyme used. At 0 degrees C, the monomeric apoenzyme-FAD complex is either stabilized (P. fluorescens) or only transiently detectable (A. vinelandii). Dimerization of P. fluorescens enzyme is strongly stimulated in the presence of NADH.     

Crystalline green 5-hydroxyvaleryl-CoA dehydratase from Clostridium aminovalericum

A green enzyme from Clostridium aminovalericum with valeryl-CoA dehydrogenase activity was purified to homogeneity (169 +/- 3 kDa) and crystallized. By SDS/PAGE, one type of subunit (42 kDa) was detected indicating a homotetrameric structure. The unusual ultraviolet/visible spectrum of the green enzyme (maxima at 394 nm, 438 nm and 715 nm) was converted to a normal flavoprotein spectrum either by reduction with dithionite and reoxidation under air, or by removal of the prosthetic group at pH 2 and reconstitution with FAD (not FMN). Besides FAD (4 mol/169 kDa), the enzyme contained 4 mol of a CoA ester which was similar but not identical to 5-hydroxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA. The reconstituted holoenzyme as well as the native green enzyme, but not the apoenzyme, catalysed the reversible dehydration of 5-hydroxyvaleryl-CoA to 4-pentenoyl-CoA in the absence of an external electron acceptor. In its presence (preferentially ferricenium ion), the green or yellow enzyme catalysed the formation of (E)-5-hydroxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA and 2,4-pentadienoyl-CoA either from 4-pentenoyl-CoA or from 5-hydroxyvaleryl-CoA. The reversible hydration of 2,4-pentadienoyl-CoA to (E)-5-hydroxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA was mediated by both enzymes as well as by the apoenzyme in the absence of FAD. Hydration of 4-pentenoate in 2H2O yielded optically active 5-hydroxy[2,4-2H2]valerate by the combined action of 5-hydroxyvalerate CoA-transferase, the green dehydratase and catalytical amounts of acetyl-CoA. The data show that the reversible hydration of the isolated double bond of 4-pentenoyl-CoA to 5-hydroxyvaleryl-CoA. which apparently violates the Markovnikov rule, is preceded by oxidation to 2,4-pentadienoyl-CoA. The latter compound, a vinyl analogue of 2-enoyl-CoA, is then easily hydrated to (E)-5-hydroxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA and finally reduced to 5-hydroxyvaleryl-CoA.     

Hydrophobic core variant ubiquitin forms a molten globule conformation at acidic pH

The conformational properties of hydrophobic core variant ubiquitin (Val26 to Ala mutation) in an acidic solution were studied. The intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence emission spectrum, far-UV and near-UV circular dichroic spectra, the fluorescence emission spectrum of 8-anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid in the presence of V26A ubiquitin, and urea-induced unfolding measurements indicate this variant ubiquitin to be in the partially folded molten globule conformation in solution at pH 2. The folding kinetics from molten globule to the native state was nearly identical to those from the unfolded state to the native state. This observation suggests that the equilibrium molten globule state of hydrophobic core variant ubiquitin is an on-pathway folding intermediate.     

Reconstitution of native Escherichia coli pyruvate oxidase from apoenzyme monomers and FAD

Pyruvate oxidase, a tetrameric enzyme consisting of 4 identical subunits, dissociates into apoenzyme monomers and free FAD when treated with acid ammonium sulfate in the presence of high concentrations of potassium bromide. Reconstitution of the native enzymatically active protein can be accomplished by incubating equimolar concentrations of apomonomers and FAD at pH 6.5. The kinetics of the reconstitution reaction have been measured by 1) enzyme activity assays, 2) spectrophotometric assays to measure FAD binding, and 3) high performance liquid chromatography analysis measuring the distribution of monomeric, dimeric, and tetrameric species during reconstitution. The kinetic analysis indicates that the second order reaction of apomonomers with FAD to form an initial monomer-FAD complex is fast. The rate-limiting step for enzymatic reactivation appears to be the folding of the polypeptide chain in the monomer-FAD complex to reconstitute the three-dimensional FAD binding site prior to subunit reassociation. The subsequent formation of native tetramers appears to proceed via an essentially irreversible dimer assembly pathway.     

Metal ion stabilization of the conformation of a recombinant 19-kDa catalytic fragment of human fibroblast collagenase.

A recombinant 19-kDa human fibroblast collagenase catalytic fragment modeled on a naturally occurring proteolytic product was purified from E. coli inclusion bodies. Following renaturation in the presence of zinc and calcium, the fragment demonstrated catalytic activity with the same primary sequence specificity against small synthetic substrates as the full-length collagenase. Unlike the parent enzyme, it rapidly cleaved casein and gelatin but not native type I collagen. Intrinsic fluorescence of the three tryptophan residues was used to monitor the conformational state of the enzyme, which underwent a 24-nm red shift in emission upon denaturation accompanied by quenching of the fluorescence and loss of catalytic activity. Low concentrations of denaturant unfolded the fragment while the full-length enzyme displayed a shallow extended denaturation curve. Calcium remarkably stabilized the 19-kDa fragment, zinc less so, while together they were synergistically stabilizing. Among divalent cations, calcium was the most effective stabilizer, EC50 approximately 60 microM, and similar amounts were required for substrate hydrolysis. Catalytic activity was more sensitive to denaturation than was tryptophan fluorescence. Least sensitive was the polypeptide backbone secondary structure assessed by CD. These observations suggest that the folding of the 19-kDa collagenase fragment is a multistep process stabilized by calcium.     

Unfolding intermediate in the peroxisomal flavoprotein D-amino acid oxidase

The flavoenzyme d-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) from Rhodotorula gracilis is a peroxisomal enzyme and a prototypical member of the glutathione reductase family of flavoproteins. DAAO is a stable homodimer with a FAD molecule tightly bound to each 40-kDa subunit. In this work, the urea-induced unfolding of dimeric DAAO was compared with that of a monomeric form of the same protein, a deleted dimerization loop mutant. By using circular dichroism spectroscopy, protein and flavin fluorescence, 1,8-anilinonaphtalene sulfonic acid binding and activity assays, we demonstrated that the urea-induced unfolding of DAAO is a three-state process, yielding an intermediate, and that this process is reversible. The intermediate species lacks the catalytic activity and the characteristic tertiary structure of native DAAO but has significant secondary structure and retains flavin binding. Unfolding of DAAO proceeds through formation of an expanded, partially unfolded inactive intermediate, characterized by low solubility, by increased exposure of hydrophobic surfaces, and by increased sensitivity to trypsin of the beta-strand F5 belonging to the FAD binding domain. The oligomeric state does not modify the inferred folding process. The strand F5 is in contact with the C-terminal alpha-helix containing the Ser-Lys-Leu sequence corresponding to the type 1 peroxisomal targeting signal, and this structural element interacts with the N-terminal betaalphabeta flavin binding motif (Rossmann fold). The expanded conformation of the folding intermediate (and in particular the higher disorder of the mentioned secondary structure elements) could match the structure of the inactive holoenzyme required for in vivo trafficking of DAAO through the peroxisomal membrane.     

Structure of a rapidly formed intermediate in ribonuclease T1 folding.

Kinetic intermediates in protein folding are short-lived and therefore difficult to detect and to characterize. In the folding of polypeptide chains with incorrect isomers of Xaa-Pro peptide bonds the final rate-limiting transition to the native state is slow, since it is coupled to prolyl isomerization. Incorrect prolyl isomers thus act as effective traps for folding intermediates and allow their properties to be studied more easily. We employed this strategy to investigate the mechanism of slow folding of ribonuclease T1. In our experiments we use a mutant form of this protein with a single cis peptide bond at proline 39. During refolding, protein chains with an incorrect trans proline 39 can rapidly form extensive secondary structure. The CD signal in the amide region is regained within the dead-time of stopped-flow mixing (15 ms), indicating a fast formation of the single alpha-helix of ribonuclease T1. This step is correlated with partial formation of a hydrophobic core, because the fluorescence emission maximum of tryptophan 59 is shifted from 349 nm to 325 nm within less than a second. After about 20 s of refolding an intermediate is present that shows about 40% enzymatic activity compared to the completely refolded protein. In addition, the solvent accessibility of tryptophan 59 is drastically reduced in this intermediate and comparable to that of the native state as determined by acrylamide quenching of the tryptophan fluorescence. Activity and quenching measurements have long dead-times and therefore we do not know whether enzymatic activity and solvent accessibility also change in the time range of milliseconds. At this stage of folding at least part of the beta-sheet structure is already present, since it hosts the active site of the enzyme. The trans to cis isomerization of the tyrosine 38-proline 39 peptide bond in the intermediate and consequently the formation of native protein is very slow (tau = 6,500 s at pH 5.0 and 10 degrees C). It is accompanied by an additional increase in tryptophan fluorescence, by the development of the fine structure of the tryptophan emission spectrum, and by the regain of the full enzymatic activity. This indicates that the packing of the hydrophobic core, which involves both tryptophan 59 and proline 39, is optimized in this step. Apparently, refolding polypeptide chains with an incorrect prolyl isomer can very rapidly form partially folded intermediates with native-like properties.     

A 19F-NMR study of the membrane-binding region of D-lactate dehydrogenase of Escherichia coli.

D-Lactate dehydrogenase (D-LDH) is a membrane-associated respiratory enzyme of Escherichia coli. The protein is composed of 571 amino acid residues with a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor, has a molecular weight of approximately 65,000, and requires lipids or detergents for full activity. We used NMR spectroscopy to investigate the structure of D-LDH and its interaction with phospholipids. We incorporated 5-fluorotryptophan (5F-Trp) into the native enzyme, which contains five tryptophan residues, and into mutant enzymes, where a sixth tryptophan is substituted into a specific site by oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis, and studied the 5F-Trp-labeled enzymes using 19F-NMR spectroscopy. In this way, information was obtained about the local environment at each native and substituted tryptophan site. Using a nitroxide spin-labeled fatty acid, which broadens the resonance from any residue within 15 A, we have established that the membrane-binding area of the protein includes the region between Tyr 228 and Phe 369, but is not continuous within this region. This conclusion is strengthened by the results of 19F-NMR spectroscopy of wild-type enzyme labeled with fluorotyrosine or fluorophenylalanine in the presence and absence of a nitroxide spin-labeled fatty acid. These experiments indicate that 9-10 Phe and 3-4 Tyr residues are located near the lipid phase.     

Aggregation, dissociation and unfolding of glucose dehydrogenase during urea denaturation

The effect of urea on glucose dehydrogenase from Bacillus megaterium has been studied by following changes in enzymatic activity, conformation and state of aggregation. It was found that the denaturation process involves several transitions. At very low urea concentrations (below 0.5 M), where the enzyme is fully active and tetrameric, there is a conformational change as monitored by an increase in intensity of the tryptophan fluorescence and a maximum exposure of organized hydrophobic surfaces as reported by the fluorescence of 4,4'-dianilino-1,1'-binaphthyl-5.5'-disulfonic acid. At slightly higher urea concentrations (0.75-2 M), a major conformational transition occurs, as monitored by circular dichroism and fluorescence measurements, in which the enzyme activity is completely lost and is concomitant with the formation of interacting intermediates that lead to a highly aggregated state. Increasing urea concentrations cause a complete dissociation to lead first a partially and eventually the complete unfolded monomer. These phenomena are fully reversible by dilution of denaturant. It is concluded that after urea denaturation, the folding/assembly pathway of glucose dehydrogenase occurs with the formation of intermediate species in which transient higher aggregates appear to be involved.     

A stable cold folding intermediate of rabbit muscle D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase.

With decreasing temperature the reactivation yield of denatured D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) upon dilution increases but the reactivation rate decreases. Neither reactivation nor aggregation during refolding can be detected at 4 degrees C in 48 h, and at 3 degrees C even in 6 days. However, the reactivation takes place once the temperature is raised with little decrease of the yield after incubation for 6 days at 3 degrees C. A cold folding intermediate forms in a burst phase of refolding at 4 degrees C as shown by a fast change of the intrinsic fluorescence followed by further conformational adjustment to a stable state in about 1 h. The stable folding intermediate has been characterized to be a dimer of partially folded GAPDH subunit with secondary structure between that of the native and denatured enzymes, a hydrophobic cluster not found in either the native or the denatured state, and an active site similar to but different from that of the native state. Chaperonin 60 (GroEL) binds with all intermediates formed at 4 degrees C, but the intermediates formed at the early folding stage reactivate with higher yield than those formed after conformational adjustment when dissociated from GroEL in the presence of ATP and further folded and assembled into the native tetramer.     

Effects of glycosylation on the folding and stability of human, recombinant and cleaved alpha 1-antitrypsin.

The equilibrium unfolding transitions for the human M form of alpha 1-antitrypsin have been determined using a number of techniques reflecting changes in tryptophan fluorescence lifetime and quenching, exposure of tryptophan to solvent, secondary structure and the Stokes' radius of the protein. The denaturation curves are more complex than is usual for globular proteins and indicate the presence of multiple equilibrium intermediates in the presence of denaturant. This is in marked contrast to the more co-operative transition of the cleaved inhibitor. In addition, a recombinant non-glycosylated alpha 1-antitrypsin has been shown to have a closely similar conformation to the human M protein and to exhibit very similar reversible unfolding transitions, and hence similar stability and co-operativity. Differences in tryptophan environment are reflected in the dequenching of tryptophan fluorescence and reduced asymmetry in the near ultraviolet circular dichroism of the non-glycosylated protein, suggesting direct interaction of glycosyl residues with a tryptophan. Both the M type and the recombinant protein exhibit similar patterns of folding, with rapid collapse to a compact intermediate reminiscent of the widely observed molten globule state that folds more slowly to the native protein. The papain-cleaved M form also folds through a similar compact state in the absence of the C-terminal peptide that results from cleavage. It is concluded that part of the C-terminal 36 residue peptide interacts strongly with the main body of the protein in the folded inhibitor. This interaction will also be important during early stages of folding of the intact protein to direct the folding pathway. The lack of glycosylation leads to an increase in aggregation of the recombinant protein upon refolding, especially after extended denaturation times. The more rapid turnover of the recombinant protein in vivo is shown not to be due to a lower thermodynamic stability, but may be associated with a lower kinetic stability arising from the increased tendency to aggregation.     

Kinetics and importance of the dimerization step in the folding pathway of the beta 2 subunit of Escherichia coli tryptophan synthase

During its folding, the polypeptide chain of the beta 2 subunit of Escherichia coli tryptophan synthase (L-serine hydrolyase (adding indole) EC 4.2.1.20) undergoes dimerization. To decide whether this dimerization precedes or follows the formation of the native, functional, tertiary structure of the polypeptide chain, the kinetics of renaturation of beta 2 are studied by monitoring both the regain of native conformation and the dimerization. Dimer formation is followed by the increase of the fluorescence polarization, or by energy transfer between a fluorescence donor and a fluorescence acceptor, which occur upon association of adequately labelled beta chains. Renaturation is followed by the regain of functional properties of beta 2, i.e. its ability to bind pyridoxal-5'-phosphate or to form a fluorescent ternary complex with this coenzyme and L-serine. It is shown that for beta 2 the dimerization obeys first-order kinetics, presumably because it occurs rapidly after a rate-limiting isomerization of the monomer. The dimerization is followed by another isomerization, taking place within the dimer, which leads to the formation of the pyridoxal-5'-phosphate binding site. Still another, slow, isomerization reaction involving the F1 (N-terminal) domain completes the renaturation. With a modified form of beta 2 (trypsin-nicked beta 2) where this isomerization of F1 can be made to occur before the dimerization, the dimer is also shown to appear before the functional properties. It is concluded that a non-native dimer indeed exists as an obligatory intermediate on the folding pathway of nicked beta 2 and of beta 2, and that interdomain interactions are needed to force the polypeptide chains into their native conformations.     

Differential salt-induced stabilization of structure in the initial folding intermediate ensemble of barstar

The effects of two salts, KCl and MgCl(2), on the stability and folding kinetics of barstar have been studied at pH 8. Equilibrium urea unfolding curves were used to show that the free energy of unfolding, deltaG(UN), of barstar increased from a value of 4.7 kcalmol(-1) in the absence of salt to a value of 6.9 kcalmol(-1) in the presence of 1M KCl or 1M MgCl(2). For both salts, deltaG(UN) increases linearly with an increase in concentration of salt from 0M to 1M, suggesting that stabilization of the native state occurs primarily through a Hofmeister effect. Refolding kinetics were studied in detail in the presence of 1M KCl as well as in the presence of 1M MgCl(2), and it is shown that the basic folding mechanism is not altered upon addition of salt. The major effects on the refolding kinetics can be attributed to the stabilization of the initial burst phase ensemble, I(E), by salt. Stabilization of structure in I(E) by KCl causes the fluorescence properties of I(E) to change, so that there is an initial burst phase change in fluorescence at 320 nm, during refolding. The structure in I(E) is stabilized by MgCl(2), but no burst phase change in fluorescence at 320 nm is observed during refolding. The fluorescence emission spectra of I(E) show that when refolding is initiated in 1M KCl, the three tryptophan residues in I(E) are less solvent exposed than when folding is initiated in 1M MgCl(2). Stabilization of I(E) leads to an acceleration in the rate of the fast observable phase of folding by both salts, suggesting that structure of the transition state resembles that of I(E). The stabilization of I(E) by salts can be accounted for largely by the same mechanism that accounts for the stabilization of the native state of the protein, namely through the Hofmeister effect. The salts do not affect the rates of the slower phases of folding, indicating that the late intermediate ensemble, I(L), is not stabilized by salts. Stabilization of the native state results in deceleration of the fast unfolding rate, which has virtually no dependence on the concentration of KCl or MgCl(2) at high concentrations. The observation that the salt-induced stabilization of structure in I(E) is accompanied by an acceleration in the fast folding rate, suggests that I(E) is likely to be a productive on-pathway intermediate.     

A green 2,4-pentadienoyl-CoA reductase from Clostridium aminovalericum

2,4-Pentadienoyl-CoA reductase from Clostridium aminovalericum was purified to homogeneity (170-182 kDa). PAGE in the presence of SDS revealed a single band (44 kDa) indicating a homotetrameric structure. The native enzyme had a green colour and contained 0.4 mol FAD/subunit. Its unusual ultraviolet/visible-spectrum showed absorption maxima at 270, 402 and 715 nm as well as shoulders at 278, 360, 450 and 500 nm. Removal of the prosthetic group at pH 2 in the presence of salt and charcoal yielded a colourless and completely inactive apoenzyme, which could be reconstituted with FAD (not with FMN) to an active holoenzyme showing a normal flavoprotein spectrum (peaks at 369 nm and 436 nm). Thereby the FAD content increased to 0.9 mol/subunit with a concomitant rise in activity to 200% of the original value. Anaerobic reduction of the green enzyme by dithionite and reoxidation by air afforded a green preparation with a spectrum similar to that of the native enzyme. Addition of excess FAD to the green reductase also increased the activity by a factor of two. The green enzyme catalysed the oxidation of (E)-3-pentenoyl-CoA or (E)-3-hexenoyl-CoA to 2,4-pentadienoyl-CoA or 2,4-hexenoyl-CoA, respectively. 2-Pentenoyl-CoA or 4-pentenoyl-CoA were not oxidised. Meldola blue (8-dimethylamino-2,3-benzophenoxazine) and 2-(4-iodophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-phenyltetrazolium chloride (V = 26 nkat/mg protein) or ferricenium hexafluorophosphate (V = 1900 nkat/mg), but not NAD(P), served as electron acceptors. Reduction of 2,4-pentadienoyl-CoA (V = 370 nkat/mg) was observed with reduced benzyl viologen, but not with NAD(P)H as an electron donor. Although the enzyme had some pentenoyl-CoA delta-isomerase activity (1.2 nkat/mg), the only product of the reduction was 3-pentenoyl-CoA rather than 2-pentenoyl-CoA.     

Isolation, amino acid analyses and refolding of subunits of pig heart succinyl-CoA synthetase.

For the first time, pig heart succinyl-CoA synthetase has been refolded from its isolated subunits after denaturation. Amino acid analyses of pig heart succinyl-CoA synthetase and its subunits were performed. Subunits were isolated by gel filtration in neutral 6 M-urea. The amino acid composition of the native enzyme bears a strong resemblance to that of the Escherichia coli enzyme. Application of the various methods for comparing amino acid compositions [Cornish-Bowden (1983) Methods Enzymol. 91, 60-75] shows that the degree of relatedness between the alpha-subunits of the pig heart and E. coli enzymes and between the beta-subunits of the two synthetases is intermediate between 'strong' and 'weak'. As for the E. coli synthetase, it is unlikely that the alpha-subunit arises from the larger beta-subunit by post-translational modification. The pig heart enzyme contains a single tryptophan residue, which is located in the beta-subunit. Excitation of the enzyme at 295 nm resulted in a typical tryptophan emission spectrum. Refolding of enzyme denatured in 6 M-guanidine hydrochloride or of alpha- and beta-subunits isolated in this solvent required the presence of either ethylene glycol or glycerol, optimally at 20-25% (v/v). GTP-Mg2+ did not stimulate reactivation of the enzyme, in contrast with the result obtained with ATP-Mg2+ in the reconstitution of the enzyme from E. coli. Yields of 60% and 40% were obtained in the refolding of denatured enzyme and isolated subunits respectively. The fluorescence spectrum of the refolded protein was essentially the same as that of native enzyme. Unrecovered activity could not be accounted for in the form of protein aggregates. The specific activity of refolded enzyme that had been separated from inactive protein on a Bio-Sil TSK 250 column was the same as that of native enzyme. Km values for GTP of 27 microM and 14 microM were determined for native and refolded enzyme respectively.     

Folding/Unfolding Kinetics of Apomyoglobin

The equilibrium and kinetic folding/unfolding of apomyoglobin (ApoMb) were studied at pH 6.2, 11 °C by recording tryptophan fluorescence. The equilibrium unfolding of ApoMb in the presence of urea was shown to involve accumulation of an intermediate state, which had a higher fluorescence intensity as compared with the native and unfolded states. The folding proceeded through two kinetic phases, a rapid transition from the unfolded to the intermediate state and a slow transition from the intermediate to the native state. The accumulation of the kinetic intermediate state was observed in a wide range of urea concentrations. The intermediate was detected even in the region corresponding to the unfolding limb of the chevron plot. Urea concentration dependence was obtained for the observed folding/unfolding rate. The shape of the dependence was compared with that of two-state proteins characterized by a direct transition from the unfolded to the native state.     

Steady state and picosecond time-resolved fluorescence studies on native, desulpho and deflavo xanthine oxidase

Steady state and time-resolved fluorescence studies on native, desulpho and deflavo xanthine oxidase (XO) have been carried out to investigate the conformational changes associated with the replacement of the molybdenum double bonded sulphur by oxygen and the removal of the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). The steady state quenching experiments of the intrinsic tryptophan residues of the enzyme show that all the nine tryptophans are accessible to neutral quencher, acrylamide, in the native as well as desulpho and deflavo enzymes. However, the number of the tryptophan residues accessible to the ionic quenchers, potassium iodide and cesium chloride, increases upon removal of the FAD centre from the enzyme. This indicates that two tryptophan residues move out from the core of the enzyme to the solvent upon the removal of the FAD. The time-resolved fluorescence studies were carried out on the native, desulpho and deflavo XO by means of the time-correlated single photon counting technique, and the data were analysed by discrete exponential and maximum entropy methods. The results show that the fluorescence decay curve fitted best to a three-exponential model with lifetimes tau(1)=0.4, tau(2)=1.4 and tau(3)=3.0 ns for the native and desulpho XO, and tau(1)=0.7, tau(2)=1.7 and tau(3)=4.8 ns for the deflavo XO. The replacement of the molybdenum double bonded sulphur by oxygen in the desulpho enzyme does not cause any significant change of the lifetime components. However, removal of the FAD centre causes a significant change in the shortest and longest lifetime components indicating a conformational change in the deflavo XO possibly in the flavin domain. Decay-associated emission spectra at various emission wavelengths have been used to determine the origin of the lifetimes. The results show that tau(1) and tau(3) of the native and desulpho XO originate from the tryptophan residues which are completely or partially accessible to the solvent but tau(2) corresponds to those residues which are buried in the core of the enzyme and not exposed to the solvent. For deflavo enzyme, tau(2) is red shifted compared to the native enzyme indicating the movement of tryptophan residues from the core of the enzyme to the solvents.