Dependence of the structure of component parasite communities on host age

Dependence of the structure of component parasite communities on host age is studied by the example of parasite communities in minnow and grayling from the North Dvina and Pechora rivers basins. Parasite communities from immature host groups are revealed to be different from those in mature fishes by lesser number of parasite individuals and biomass, number of groups discriminated by the ratio of biomasses, and frequently by lesser number of species. Indices of diversity describing parasite communities from hosts of different ages are nearly always the same in the area examined. This observation needs in verification because values of the indices characterizing parasite communities from fishes of different ages are not equal in the parasite communities from grayling of different age from the Pinega river and minnow from the Chovju river (Dorovskikh, 2002).     

Host age and structure of the component communities of parasites in river minnow Phoxinus phoxinus (L.)

Species composition and structure of the communities of fish parasites in river minnow Phoxinus phoxinus (L.) from the Pechora river were investigated in two of the Pechora-Ilychsky Biosphere Nature Reserve, Komi Republic. The component communities of the parasites in river minnow are shown to have a one-year cycle including the states of development, completion, and destruction. Communities in the state of development are characterized by a low variety of species, low values of Shannon index, often high values of domination index, presence of only two groups of parasites in the structure described by variational curved of the conditional biomasses of species, deviation of the conditional biomasses of species from the linear regression, and sum of errors of the regression equations lower a threshold value. The communities consist of young individual parasites and their larval stages. Completed community is characterized by the following properties. There are three groups of parasites, differing in allometric index, in the structure, discerned by the ratio of conditional biomasses of the species included. Conditional biomasses of species in ecologically safe reservoirs lie on the segments of straight lines. Species variety reaches its maximum. Species are presented mainly by mature specimens and larval stages of the parasites using fish as intermediate host. Community in the state of destruction shows low values of domination index and relatively small variety pf species. Such community is consist of one or two groups of species, which are represented by mature, oviparous, and dying individuals. There are larval stages of parasites using fish as intermediate hosts. Dominant species or species groups, as well as values of indexes describing the component communities of parasites, can be different in mature river minnow from different geographical regions. However, the number of groups of parasites, formed by the ratio of conditional biomasses, remains constant, and sum of errors of the regression equations characterizing the communities is always below 0.25. Component communities of parasites in young river minnows differ from the communities in mature fishes by lower variety of species. Lower biomass, and lower number of individual parasites. The communities of parasites in 0+ old fishes are often characterized by lesser number of groups of parasites, classified by the ratio of their biomasses, and presence of two dominate species. It is often impossible to count the sum of errors of the regression equations describing spread in values of biomasses of the species forming the community.     

Structure of component parasite communities in the grayling, Thymallus thymallus L. (Salmoniformes, Thymallidae), and minnow, Phoxinus phoxinus L. (Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae), from the upper reaches of the Pechora River

A comparative analysis of parasite communities in the grayling and minnow has been performed. These communities differ in the number of constituent species and in the fact that the community of the minnow is dominated by one allogenic species, whereas that of the grayling usually has two dominants, both being autogenic species. The values of species diversity indices characterizing these communities are also different. Differences between the parasite communities of these fish species reflect the position of their hosts in the hydrobiocenosis. Species prevailing in both communities are classified as specialists, which is characteristic of parasite communities of the boreal-piedmont faunal complex. Both these communities consist of three species groups distinguished by their proportions in the total biomass, which indicates that parasitic communities are structured in a certain way and that the distribution of species in them is not random.     

Parasite communities and a fish spawn

High values of dominance index, low values of evenness and Shannon index are characteristic of component parasite communities of prespawning (Prosopium cylindraceum) and spawn migratory fishes (Coregonus autumnalis, Oncorhynchus nerka). Autogenic specialists are dominant in the component parasite communities of C. autumnalis. The component parasite communities of P. cylindraceum and O. nerka are dominant in a content of generalist species. The O. nerka parasite communities are communities "sentenced to death". Low values of dominance index, high values of evenness abd Shannon index are peculiar to component parasite communities of prespawning and spawning cyprinid fishes (Phoxinus phoxinus, Oreoleuciscus humilis). Autogenic specialists are dominant. Increase of dominance index and decrease of two other indexes characterize the postspawning period. The same tendency characterises infracommunities. Thus, the component parasite communities respond differently to the fish spawn of the cyprinid and coregonid/salmonid fishes. Similarity is in the dominance of autogenic specialists in one case only (C. autumnalis). These differences are defined by the mode of fish stock formation for spawn. The cyprinids congregate for spawning and move apart for foraging and vice versa is observed in the coregonids and salmonids. Autogenic specialists dominance seems to be the important adaptation to reduce a negative effect to host during spawning. Bush and Kennedy in 1994 established that "parasites live in patches (host individuals) and fragments (host populations)". They consider the host fragmentation as "hedging your bets against extinction" due to frequency and magnitude anthropogenic factors, which increase fragmenting of host populations. This conclusion was made for a species level. From the other hand the fragmentation is a natural feature for a single host population too. Such fragmentation is a host population structure. The role of fragmentation is obvious from the data on component parasite communities during fish spawn. The fragmentation decreases in the cyprinids and increases in the salmonids that leads to the growing of the cyprinid component parasite communities diversity and to declining the salmonid component parasite communities diversity. Nevertheless the role of host population structure in a component parsite community structure is not obvious, because parasites are able or not able to "recognise" different host subpopulation groups. It is well known from data on parasite species population biology. Such recognizable subpopulation groups or groups can be a "real fragment" for the parasite community. The question is what parameters could be used for this purpose on a component community level. Host population age structure can be used as an example, because the age groups are one of the invariable population characters. Value of Shannon index for component parasite communities of spawn migratory O. nerka (5+) is similar to that of fishes of 1+ age. Difference is statistically insignificant. It is insignificant between the parasite communities of 2+ and 3+ age groups too. Fishes of these two groups could be defined as a real united fragment. It spite of similarity between the fishes of 5+ age group and fish of 1+ age group they are not united fragment. The parasite community of 1+ age fishes is not stabilized yet and one of 5+ age is a community "sentenced to death". Thus the structuring of O. nerka freshwater parasite communities are defined by 3 real host age fragments: 1+ age group, 2 and 3+ age group, 4+ age group. It looks as that Shannon index is suitable parameter to study a parasite communities structure.     

Determinants of the parasite community of clariid fishes from Lake Victoria, Tanzania

The factors that determine parasite assemblages among the clariid fishes of Lake Victoria, Tanzania were studied between August 2003 and February 2005. Six hundred and fifty-six fish belonging to seven species were necropsied and examined for parasites, from which 31 species of metazoan parasites were recorded. The community was dominated by the nematodes both in species and numbers. Most species were generalists with only two trematodes, Diplostomum mashonense and Tylodelphys species, being specialists of Clarias gariepinus. Ten species were considered core and predictable. Parasite species richness, number of individuals per host and Shannon-Wiener diversity indices were generally high. At the compound community level, a mean number of 7.8 parasites were shared among different species of fish and the maximum number of parasites species per fish at the infracommunity level was seven. Levels of similarity in parasite species richness at the component community level ranged from 29.6 to 61.5%. The study concludes that parasite communities in clariid fishes of Lake Victoria are structured by ecological factors. At the infracommunity level, host size, diet and vagility promoted a richer parasite community. At the compound level, two factors were crucial, namely the intermixing of the waters in the lake and the predominant and mobile C. gariepinus.     

The life cycle of myxosporidians in fish of the Kola Peninsula

Monthly studies on the seasonal parasite fauna dynamics of pike, minnow and perch were carried out from May, 1974 to September, 1977. It was found out that the myxosporidian Henneguya creplini has a one-year life cycle. The infection of perch with this parasite takes place at a water temperature not exceeding 13 degrees. In other species (Chloromyxum esocinum, Ch. mitenevi, Myxobolus cybinae) the life cycle is shorter, in consequence of which fishes can be infected with these parasites several times a year and in different seasons. The nature of seasonal changes in abundance of myxosporidians depends to a great extent on weather conditions of each concrete year.     

Community ecology of the parasites of adult spot, Leiostomus xanthurus, and Atlantic croaker, Micropogonias undulatus (Sciaenidae) in the Cape Hatteras region

Twenty-three species of metazoan parasites were recorded from adult spot and 26 from adult croaker. Of the 33 parasitic species found, 17 occurred in both spot and croaker. No significant differences in intensity of parasites occurred between sexes of either spot or croaker. All of the parasites had over-dispersed, or clumped, distributions among hosts. Adult spot and croaker collected offshore had much greater species-richness, diversity, and total number of individual parasites than juvenile fishes collected in adjoining estuaries during another study. The juvenile spot and croaker had less time to acquire parasites and inhabited less diverse and more confined habitats in inshore estuaries, which resulted in less diverse parasite communities than offshore fishes. The number of species and diversity of parasites in adult fish was greater in croaker than spot. However, when only gastrointestinal helminths were considered, spot had greater species-richness as well as greater numbers of individual helminths, suggesting that they had a more diverse diet and that they fed on more infected intermediate hosts than croaker. In both adult spot and croaker the mean number of parasitic species was greater than those of freshwater fishes and fewer than those for birds and mammals. The total number of individual parasites was similar to that of freshwater fishes. The opportunistic diet and the migratory habits of both spot and croaker contribute to their diverse parasite faunas. Comparison of adult spot and croaker parasite faunas collected offshore indicated that their respective parasite component communities were distinct and that similar parasite infracommunity variability existed in both hosts and that their communities were not ‘random’ samples, but restricted subsets of the compound community. Although the parasite dominance hierarchy in adults of both species varied slightly between areas and seasons sampled, there appeared to be a predictable dominant species that was accompanied by subordinate, less predictable species. However, the variability in both relative intensities and presence-absence of parasites within communities resulting from their diverse diets make them less predictable than those of other vertebrates with less diverse diets such as the lesser scaup duck and more like those of other marine fishes.     

Dynamics of parasite communities in an age series of Baikal omul Coregonus migratorius (Georgi, 1775)

Parasite communities of Baikal omul from Chivyrkuiskii Bay of Lake Baikal have been analyzed at levels of a host individual (infracommunity), a separate age group of a host (set of infracommunities), and a host population (component community). Significant positive correlations of parameters of species richness (number of parasite species, Margalef and Menhinick indices) with the age of Baikal omul were recorded only at the level of parasite infracommunities. The absence of linear positive correlations between the parameters of species richness and the age of Baikal omul at the level of sets of parasite infracommunities were revealed for the first time for fishes of Lake Baikal. The peculiarity of the dynamics of parasite communities of Baikal omul is determined by specific features of the host physiology and ecology, primarily by the age dynamics of the feeding spectrum.     

Structure of the parasite communities of a coral reef fish assemblage (Labridae): testing ecological and phylogenetic host factors

The role of ecological and phylogenetic processes is fundamental to understanding how parasite communities are structured. However, for coral reef fishes, such information is almost nonexistent. In this study, we analyzed the structure of the parasite communities based on composition, richness, abundance, and biovolume of ecto- and endoparasites of 14 wrasse species (Labridae) from Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. We determine whether the structure of the parasite communities from these fishes was related to ecological characteristics (body size, abundance, swimming ability, and diet) and/or the phylogenetic relatedness of the hosts. We examined 264 fishes from which almost 37,000 individual parasites and 98 parasite categories (types and species) were recorded. Gnathiid and cestode larvae were the most prevalent and abundant parasites in most fishes. Mean richness, abundance, and biovolume of ectoparasites per fish species were positively correlated with host body size only after controlling for the host phylogeny, whereas no such correlation was found for endoparasites with any host variable. Because most ectoparasites have direct transmission, one possible explanation for this pattern is that increased space (host body size) may increase the colonization and recruitment of ectoparasites. However, endoparasites generally have indirect transmission that can be affected by many other variables, such as number of prey infected and rate of parasite transmission.     

Seasonal dynamics of the component community structure of parasites of the minnow Phoxinus phoxinus (L.)

The material represented by 75 specimens of minnow of the age 2-2(+) was collected according to the standard technique in the Chovju River (tributary of the Vychegda River, a region of the settlement Nizniy Chov, district of Syktyvkar town) during the period June-September 2000. The quantitative estimation of the structure of the component parasite communities was performed by calculating errors of the equation of regression for each species group separately, with subsequent summarizing of means of errors by all parasite groups comprising the community (Dorovskikh, 2001 6; 2002 B). In order to have a possibility to get data complementing each other, the calculation of variety indexes and other indexes have been made for metazoan parasites only and for the whole community, including the protozoan parasites. In both cases, i.e. considering only metazoan parasites and the whole composition of parasite species, three states of the component parasite community have been recognised: the formed community (June), the community in destroying (July and August), the community in the process of formation (September). In the course of working on the total species composition we recorded the beginning of community destroying on 30th of June, and the beginning of community formation in August. Considering only the metazoan parasites, the community is defined (after: Pugachev, 1999) as the mature (balanced) one in June, while in July, August and September, it was unmature (off-balance) by its characteristics. Regarding the protozoan parasites, the community in June, August and September was characterized as the mature one based on indices of parasite biomass, and as unripe one based on the number of parasite individuals; however in July, both groups of indices allowed to refer it to the unripe state. However, these unripe states are essentially different. In July, it is the result of dieing out the parasites of the past generation; in August and September, it is the result of the appearances of new generations. Therefore we recognise three states of parasite community named above. Considering the whole species composition of parasites we noted the greater difference of index values based on the parasite specimen numbers and their conventional biomass, that was in the case of the metazoan parasites only. It is particularly noticeable in the middle of the June, in the period of the formed community. This fact, together with high errors of the equations of regression and the presence of the high number of Apiosoma, points to the disturbance in the structure of component parasite community in the minnow from the Chovju River. This is easily explicable, because the Chovju River is the polluted reservoir, and pollution comes from agricultural fields, Verhny-Chov settlement, pigsties and cow-sheds. The pollution is a seasonal factor here. The most powerful pollution was noted at May-June, and then it decreased along the beginning of rains in the end of August; in September it increased again. It is important to point out that the monitoring of the metazoan parasites only allows to reveal the general dynamics of the community during the period of observation, but does not allow to catch the beginning of its destroying and developing and to notice possible disturbances in the community structure caused by pollution of reservoirs, particularly, if this pollution is a seasonal factor as in the Chovju River. Three named states of the component community of the fish parasites take place in other periods of year than this observed in the intestional parasite communities of fish helminths of the temperate climate zone. The developing of parasite communities of the intestinal helminths of the Anguilla anguilla in England (Kennedy, 1997) and of Leuciscus idus from the Rybinsk reservoir (Zhohov, 2003) starts in the beginning of summer. In May, their species diversity is minimal and in August is maximal. In conditions of the middle stream of the Vychegda River, the species diversity of parasite community associated with the minnow is maximal in June and minimal in August, when it only begins developing.     

Component communities of parasites in the grayling Thymallus thymallus (L.) (Salmoniformes, Thymallidae) and the minnow Phoxinus phoxinus (L.) (Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae) from the Pechora River

Component communities of parasites of Thymallus thymallus and Phoxinus phoxinus are described. The communities differ in the number of species and in the number of dominate species, which is one in P. phoxinus and usually two in T. thymallus. In the first case the dominate species is allogenic, while in the second case dominate species are autogenic. Values of the species diversity indexes are also different for these communities. The differences between parasite communities of T. thymallus and P. phoxinus underline positions of these hosts in hydrobiocenose. Species specialists take first place in the parasite communities both of the hosts, that is characteristic for the parasite communities of the fishes from the boreal submountain faunistic complex. Parasite communities in both of the hosts consist of three groups of species discriminated by the ratio of their biomasses, that suggests forming of the groups by a coordination of the species biomasses.     

Spatio‐temporal variation in parasite communities maintains diversity at the major histocompatibility complex class IIβ in the endangered Rio Grande silvery minnow

Climate change will strongly impact aquatic ecosystems particularly in arid and semi‐arid regions. Fish–parasite interactions will also be affected by predicted altered flow and temperature regimes, and other environmental stressors. Hence, identifying environmental and genetic factors associated with maintaining diversity at immune genes is critical for understanding species’ adaptive capacity. Here, we combine genetic (MHC class IIβ and microsatellites), parasitological and ecological data to explore the relationship between these factors in the remnant wild Rio Grande silvery minnow (Hybognathus amarus) population, an endangered species found in the southwestern United States. Infections with multiple parasites on the gills were observed and there was spatio‐temporal variation in parasite communities and patterns of infection among individuals. Despite its highly endangered status and chronically low genetic effective size, Rio Grande silvery minnow had high allelic diversity at MHC class IIβ with more alleles recognized at the presumptive DAB1 locus compared to the DAB3 locus. We identified significant associations between specific parasites and MHC alleles against a backdrop of generalist parasite prevalence. We also found that individuals with higher individual neutral heterozygosity and higher amino acid divergence between MHC alleles had lower parasite abundance and diversity. Taken together, these results suggest a role for fluctuating selection imposed by spatio‐temporal variation in pathogen communities and divergent allele advantage in maintenance of high MHC polymorphism. Understanding the complex interaction of habitat, pathogens and immunity in protected species will require integrated experimental, genetic and field studies.     

Nestedness in assemblages of gyrodactylids (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidea) parasitising two species of cyprinid--with reference to generalists and specialists

The structure of gyrodactylid assemblages in individual fishes of two species of cyprinid was determined. A total of 100 specimens of minnow, Phoxinus phoxinus, and 137 specimens of roach, Rutilus rutilus, were investigated for presence of gyrodactylids. Host specificity, specialists vs. generalists, was noted in each host fish. A nested pattern was recorded in parasite assemblages of minnow, the host with a dominant number of specialist gyrodactylids. A non-nested pattern was observed in parasite assemblages of roach, the host with a dominant number of generalist gyrodactylids. The host specificity appears to be a meaningful factor that determines the pattern of gyrodactylid assemblages of both fish hosts.     

Dependence that the community structure of the roach <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rutilus rutilus</Emphasis> (L.) parasites has on the host age

The changes that take place in the structure of the parasite communities of two roach populations as the hosts grow older have been studied in the Chivyrkuiskii Bay of Lake Baikal and the estuary of the Selenga River. The parasite communities are analyzed at the levels of host individuals (infracommunities), host age groups (sets of infracommunities), and host population (component community). The number of parasite species regularly increases as the roaches age in both aquatic bodies, whereas the evenness of the parasite communities decreases. The Berger-Parker dominance index of the parasite communities changes with the roach age in different directions, increasing in the Chivyrkuiskii Bay and decreasing in the estuary of the Selenga River. The changes in the Shannon diversity index for sets of infracommunities of roach parasites are the opposite of those in the Berger-Parker index.     

Analysis of parasitic communities in fishes from Lake Baikal

Analysis of infracommunities and component communities of fish parasites in Lake Baikal has been conducted for the first time. It has been revealed that parasite infracommunities for the majority of Baikal fishes are weakly balanced and impoverished (the Berger-Parker Index is > 0.5; Evension is < 0.5; the Brillouin Index is < 1). The highest diversity and balance of the communities are characteristic for carnivorous fishes (Brachymystax lenok, Hucho taimen, Thymallus arcticus, Esox lucius, and Percafluviatilis). The component parasitic communities of Leuciscus leuciscus baicalensis, Rutilus rutilus, and Leocottus kesslerii are the most diverse in Lake Baikal since the Shennon index for L. leuciscus baicalensis, R. rutilus, and L. kesslerii is 2.4, for Paracotlus knerii--2.2, Limnocoitus godlewskii--2.3, Phoxinus phoxinus--2.1, Lota lota and Limnocuttus pallidus--1.9, P. fluviatilis--1.8, Leuciscus idus--1.8. The component parasitic communities of other fishes in Lake Baikal have low indices of biological diversity (H = 0.5-1.05, Smp is close to 1). A classification of mature and immature components of parasitic communities based on the ratio of specialist species and generalist species has been proposed. It is established that the component parasitic communities in sublitoral, profundal, and pseudoabyssal zones are mature, while in the littoral zone they are immature (impoverished and weakly balanced). The component parasitic communities in benthophagous fishes and predators are mature, in planktivorous fishes they are immature. The component parasitic communities are mature in the family Cyprinidae and immature in the families Coregonidae and Cottidae. The component parasitic communities of the Boreal Plain and Boreal Submountain faunal complexes are mature, but they are immature in Lake Baikal and Arctic freshwater complexes.     

Community ecology of the metazoan parasites of namorado sandperches, Pseudopercis numida Miranda-Ribeiro, 1903 and P. semifasciata Cuvier, 1829 (Perciformes: Pinguipedidae), from the coastal zone of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

One hundred and twenty-eight specimens of namorado sandperches, 62 P. numida and 66 P. semifasciata, collected between October 2002 and June 2003 off the Cabo Frio, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Lat 23 degrees S and Long 42 degrees W), were examined to study their metazoan parasites. Parasite communities of these fish were composed basically of endoparasites, mainly digenean and cestodes species, with low prevalence and abundance but having high parasite species richness values (at the component community level). Among these values, that found for P. numida is the highest so far recorded for marine fishes from the Neotropical Region. Thirty-nine species of metazoan parasites were collected: 36 from P. numida and 28 from P. semifasciata. Twenty-five parasite species were common to both species of namorado sandperches. Pseudopercis numida and P. semifasciata are new host records for all parasite species collected, with the exception of Microcotyle pseudopercis. Choanodera sp., Leurodera decora, Neolebouria georgenascimentoi, and Proctoeces sp. which were recorded for the first time in the South American Atlantic Ocean. Gnathia sp. from P. numida and Scolex pleuronectis from P. semifasciata were the species having the greatest dominance frequency. Parasite abundance in P. numida and P. semifasciata were positively correlated with the host total length. Only in P. numida was parasite species richness correlated positively with the host total length. No significant differences between endoparasite infracommunities of P. numida and P. semifasciata were detected. The ectoparasites of P. numida had higher values for parasite abundance, parasite richness, Brillouin index, evenness index, and Berger-Parker index than those of the ectoparasites of P. semifasciata. Comparisons among all ecto- and endoparasites showed the ectoparasites of P. numida as the most heterogeneous group. Low similarity values were observed among the three types of parasite infracommunities of the two hosts.     

Group-living and the richness of the parasite fauna in Canadian freshwater fishes

Summary An increased transmission of ectoparasites among individual animals is considered to be an inevitable cost of living in groups, since several kinds of ectoparasites require close proximity between large numbers of hosts for successful transmission. However, we do not know whether individuals belonging to group-living species incur a greater risk of ectoparasitism than individuals of solitary species. Here, using published data from 3 families (60 species) of Canadian freshwater fishes, I test the hypothesis that group-living species are host to more species of contagious ectoparasites (copepods and monogeneans) than solitary host species. As the different fish species have been studied with varying intensity, I used the mean number of parasite species recorded per study as a standard measure of parasite numbers. Multiple regression analyses were performed separately for each family to determine the effects of group-living and of 3 other variables (host size, age, and range) on the richness of the recorded parasite fauna. Once the effects of the other variables were removed, I found no significant effect of sociality on the richness of the parasite fauna per fish species, for contagious ectoparasites and other types of parasites. Neither of the other variables had any influence on the numbers of parasite species per fish species. These results suggest that a richer ectoparasite fauna is not a cost of group-living in fishes.     

Component parasite communities in the minnow Phoxinus phoxinus (L.) from ecologically safe and polluted reservoirs

A comparative analysis of the structure of component parasite communities in the minnow from ecologically safe or polluted to variable extent reservoirs was made. The analysis showed that the increase of the reservoir pollution by everyday drains, washings of fertilizers from the fields around and the dacha sections causes the change of dominant parasite species in the minnow, alteration of the sum of errors in the regression equation characterizing the spread of values of biomasses of the species forming the parasite community, and change of the "graphic" structure of the community. It is proved, that the high concentration of biogens has a destructive effect on natural systems, and at the same time causes the process of self-organizing, leading to the alteration of the community structure. As soon as even a small part of biogens is stopped to come into the reservoir, and the quality of environment is restored, the community restores its structure.     

Patterns in metazoan parasite communities of some oyster species

Metazoan parasite communities of Crassostrea gigas and Ostrea edulis from Great Britain, Crassostrea virginica from Mexico, and Saccostrea commercialis from Australia are described and summarized in terms of species composition, species richness, total number of individuals and dominance. Metazoan parasite communities in all host species were composed of turbellarians and the metacercarial stage of digeneans, with the exception of S. commercialis where only metacercariae were found. Arthropods, including one copepod and one mite species, were present only in British oyster species. All metazoan parasite communities of oysters had few species and low density of individuals. Richest communities were found in C. virginica at both component and infracommunity level. The least diverse component community occurred in S. commercialis. Infracommunities in O. edulis and S. commercialis never exceeded one species per host. The host response against parasites is suggested as the principal factor responsible for depauperate parasite communities of oysters. Environmental factors characteristic of tropical latitudes are likely to have enhanced both the number of species and the densities of parasites per host in the infracommunities of C. virginica.     

Species abundance distributions and numerical dominance in gastrointestinal helminth communities of fish hosts

The abundances of different species in a parasite community are never similar: there is typically one or a few numerically dominant species and many species with low abundance. Here, we determine whether basic features of parasite communities are associated with strong dominance by one or a few species, among 39 component communities of gastrointestinal helminths in marine fishes from Brazil. First, we tested whether the shape of the species abundance distribution in these communities fits that predicted by several theoretical models, using a goodness-of-fit procedure. Only the canonical lognormal model could be rejected for 5 out of 39 communities; all other comparisons of observed and predicted abundance distributions showed no significant differences, although this may be due to limited statistical power. Second, we used the ratio between the abundance of the most abundant species and either the second or third most abundant species, as indices of dominance; these show, for instance, that the dominant species in a community is typically twice, but sometimes over ten times, as abundant as the next most abundant species. We found that these ratios were not influenced by either the community's species richness, the mean number of individual parasites per host, or the taxonomic identity of the dominant species. However, the abundance ratio between the first and third most abundant species in a community was significantly correlated with an independent index of species interactivity, based on the likelihood that the different parasite species in a component community co-occur in the same host individuals: the difference in abundance between the dominant and third most abundant species was greater in communities characterized by weak interactions. These findings suggest that strong interactions may lead to greater evenness in the abundance of species, and that numerical dominance is more likely to result from interspecific differences in recruitment rates.