Genetic Variation,Structure, and Gene Flow in a Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) Meta-Population in the Satpura-Maikal Landscape of Central India

Sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) are endemic to the Indian subcontinent. As a result of continued habitat loss and degradation over the past century, sloth bear populations have been in steady decline and now exist only in isolated or fragmented habitat across the entire range. We investigated the genetic connectivity of the sloth bear meta-population in five tiger reserves in the Satpura-Maikal landscape of central India. We used noninvasively collected fecal and hair samples to obtain genotypic information using a panel of seven polymorphic loci. Out of 194 field collected samples, we identified 55 individuals in this meta-population. We found that this meta-population has moderate genetic variation, and is subdivided into two genetic clusters. Further, we identified five first-generation migrants and signatures of contemporary gene flow. We found evidence of sloth bears in the corridor between the Kanha and Pench Tiger Reserves, and our results suggest that habitat connectivity and corridors play an important role in maintaining gene flow in this meta-population. These corridors face several anthropogenic and infrastructure development threats that have the potential to sever ongoing gene flow, if policies to protect them are not put into action immediately.     

Behavioural ecology of the Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus)

The Sloth bear ( Melursus ursinus ), which is endemic to the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka, has declined in numbers in many areas in recent years probably as the result of over-killing and habitat alteration. In the 544 km² Royal Chitawan National Park in the Nepal terai, we estimated there were a minimum of 55 bears or a crude density of 0˙1/km². During peak concentrations in the lowlying riverine forest/tall grass habitat in March, the ecological density was 0˙5/km².
Cubs still with their mothers comprised 24 % of the 161 bears classified between December 1972 and November 1975. Females comprised 48% of the adults classified. Average size of 24 litters was 1˙6 (1–2). Seventy-two per cent of the observations were of lone individuals. Three (an adult female with two cubs), was the largest group of bears seen. The only extended social group observed was the female-young unit although newly independent siblings may remain together for a short time. Maternal relations, adult interactions, tree marking, ranging, feeding and anti-predatory behaviour are described.
Examination of 139 droppings showed that these bears fed on at least 17 different fruits (47% occurrence), flowers, grass, honey, and six different insects (52% occurrence). Fruits were an important food from March to June with individual species predominating throughout their fruiting season. Termites, including Odontotermes obesus , were in the diet for most of the year. The Sloth bear was not observed preying on mammals and according to other observers, only rarely feeds on carrion. The ecological basis for selected aspects of Sloth bear biology and behaviour is discussed.     

Seed Dispersal by the Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) in South India1

Previous studies have shown that sloth bears are mainly myrmecophagous, but in this study, 39 and 83 percent (wet and dry season, respectively) of scats surveyed in South India contained fruits. Seeds from three of six plant species collected from scats germinated faster than seeds not passing through bears; germination percentage was not higher in any of the six species. These results suggest that the sloth bear may play an important role in the population dynamics of fleshy‐fruited species of the region.     

Hematology of sloth bears (Melursus ursinus ursinus) from two locations in India

Standard hematology parameters were determined for 122 sloth bears (Melursus ursinus ursinus) at the Sur Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh, India (27 degrees 0'N; 77 degrees 45'E), and the Bannerghatta Biological Park, Karnataka, India (12 degrees 48'N; 77 degrees 34'E) from March 2003 to July 2006. These two native sloth bear habitats have different climatic conditions and provided an opportunity to examine the effect of climate on the physiologic hematology values of these bears. We primarily analyzed the influence of age, sex, season, and body weight on the different hematology parameters. Several values were significantly different in sloth bear cubs (1 yr). The cubs had a lower erythrocyte count, hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume (PCV), and mean cell hemoglobin (MCV) values when compared to adult and subadult bears. The cubs also had higher leukocyte counts, due to higher circulating neutrophils, as compared to adult and subadult bears. Within subadult and adult bears, we also identified a sexual dimorphic difference in leukocyte count in adult and subadult bears, wherein female bears had higher counts than males. This difference was the result of a significantly higher number of circulating neutrophils in female bears. Platelet counts were also higher in females as compared to males. On comparing different seasons, leukocyte counts were higher in winter as compared to the summer and monsoon seasons. When compared based on location, erythrocyte counts were higher in subadult and adult bears at Bannerghatta, which was at a higher altitude than Sur Sarovar. Within subadult and adult bears, we did not find any significant influence of age or body weight on the different hematologic parameters. In this study we have obtained mean hematologic values for sloth bears in their native habitat to serve as a reference for this species. This report will be useful to develop and evaluate health profiles of sloth bears under various ecological conditions.     

Exudativory in the Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) in Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary,Tripura, northeast India

In this study we estimated the extent of exudativory in Nycticebus bengalensis and examined whether exudates can be considered as fallback foods. This study was carried out in Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary, northeastern India, in winter (December–February) and summer (March and April). We estimated time–activity budget using instantaneous sampling and used continuous focal animal sampling to record all instances and durations of feeding, over a total of 177 hr. Feeding accounted for 22.3±2.2% of the activity budget, with no seasonal difference. Bengal slow lorises fed on exudates, nectar, fruit, bark, invertebrates and avian eggs. In addition to scraping they also obtained exudates by gouging holes into the bark of trees. In winter, lorises almost exclusively fed on exudates (94.3% of winter feeding time). In summer, exudates (67.3%) and nectar from one species (22.3%) dominated the diet. This study identifies the Bengal slow loris as the most exudativorous loris. Exudates rather than being a staple fallback food, seem to be a preferred, patchily distributed and common food in the diet of the Bengal slow loris. Exudativory in this species is characterized by high selectivity among species and seasonal variation, which may be related to variations in productivity of exudates and their chemical composition. An understanding of these factors is necessary for predicting the response of this species to human disturbance such as logging. This study also underscores the importance of protecting some of the common species such as Terminalia belerica on which the loris feeds during periods of scarcity. Am. J. Primatol. 72:113–121, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Cockscomb Revisited: Jaguar Diet in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary,Belize1

The Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, Belize was established in 1986 following Rabinowitz and Nottingham's 1986 study on jaguar diet and distribution. In 2002, we reexamined jaguar diet following two decades of mitigated human hunting of jaguar prey. We observed high overlap between historical and current jaguar diet constructs. Nine‐banded armadillo remained the most frequently consumed prey item. However, collared peccary consumption increased by nearly 20 percent while dietary breadth decreased by 60 percent presumably reflecting increased prey availability following reduced human hunting pressure.     

Unrecorded Ethnomedicinal Uses of Biodiversity from Tadgarh-Raoli Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India

The World Health Organization(WHO)estimatesthat as manyas80%of the world′s populationrely pri-marily on plant and animal-based medicines.Amongthe252essential chemicals that have been selected bythe World Health Organization,11.1%comefrompla-nts,and8.7%fr…     

Assessment of livestock grazing pressure in and around the elephant corridors in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, south India

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary in southern India plays an important role in biodiversity conservation, especially of large mammals, by offering habitat contiguity of about 3300 km² with three other protected areas in the region, namely Nagarahole and Bandipur National Parks and Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary through forest corridors between the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats forests. The habitat linkage is crucial for large ranging animals such as elephants, which use these forest corridors for migration. Livestock grazing, a major biotic interference in forest corridors, originates from seven settlements of the Masinagudi group of villages on the eastern and the southeastern fringes of the sanctuary. Construction of a series of hydroelectric power stations, numbering about three at Singara, Marvakandy (Masinagudi) and Moyar, around the Masinagudi villages caused a rapid growth in human population (143% between 1961 and 1991), particularly the landless labourers and livestock. Free grazing by about 15 000–17 000 resident as well as migratory livestock every year in and around the forest corridors, coupled with removal of cattle dung from the forest floor, have adversely affected the forest regeneration and helped proliferation of weed species such as Lantana camara, Casia tora, C. occidentalis, Opuntia dillenii, and Ageratum conyzoides. The annual fodder production from the corridor forest could meet the demand of about two-thirds of the resident population, while the crop residues from the marginal agriculture could not support the remaining one-third livestock population. In view of such a situation, measures have been suggested to reduce livestock population and implement the ecodevelopment packages in order to ensure the corridor connectivity for the long-term conservation of the elephant population.     

Habitat occupancy of sloth bear Melursus ursinus in Chitwan National Park,Nepal

Mammals have experienced a massive decline in their populations and geographic ranges worldwide. The sloth bear, Melursus ursinus (Shaw, 1791), is one of many species facing conservation threats. Despite being endangered in Nepal, decades of inattention to the situation have hindered their conservation and management. We assessed the distribution and patterns of habitat use by sloth bears in Chitwan National Park (CNP), Nepal. We conducted sign surveys from March to June, 2020, in 4 × 4 km grids (n = 45). We collected detection/non‐detection data along a 4‐km trail that was divided into 20 continuous segments of 200 m each. We obtained environmental, ecological, and anthropogenic covariates to understand determinants of sloth bear habitat occupancy. The data were analyzed using the single‐species single‐season occupancy method, with a spatially correlated detection. Using repeated observations, these models accounted for the imperfect detectability of the species to provide robust estimates of habitat occupancy. The model‐averaged occupancy estimate for the sloth bear was 69% and the detection probability was 0.25. The probability of habitat occupancy by sloth bears increased with the presence of termites and fruits and in rugged, dry, open, undisturbed habitats. Our results indicate that the sloth bear is elusive, functionally unique, and widespread in CNP. Future conservation interventions and action plans aimed at sloth bear management must adequately consider their habitat requirements.     

Uses of ethnomedicinal plants by the people living around Kitam Bird Wildlife Sanctuary,South Sikkim,India

The utilization of wild medicinal plants in primary healthcare system is still vital for mankind, particularly for people residing nearby the protected area. However, ethnobiological knowledge of indigenous people on plant usage is diminishing. The present study aimed at documenting the wild ethnomedicinal plants and to evaluate their importance in the healthcare among the local inhabitants in the fringe villages of Kitam Bird Sanctuary, South Sikkim, India. The methodology comprised interviews and questionnaire-based household surveys focusing on the informant's knowledge and experience in the use of wild medicinal plants against several diseases and ailments. Data was analysed using relative frequency citation (RFC), use value (UV), informant consensus factor (ICF) and fidelity level (FL%). A total of 23 ethnomedicinal plant species belonging to 20 families were recorded from the study area. Among the growth forms, herbs accounted the highest number of species (39%), followed by trees (30%), climbers (13%), ferns and shrubs with 9% each. Fruits have shown the highest use (20%), followed by leaves (16%) and whole plant. Terminalia chebula had the highest RFC (0.91) and UV (0.99), followed by Terminalia bellirica (RFC = 0.89, UV = 0.96) and Phyllanthus emblica (RFC = 0.84, UV = 0.91). Results indicate that the locals in the area had good ethnobotanical knowledge of medicinal plants which indicates their dependency on plants for treating several ailments and diseases. Some unexplored species such as Calamus erectus, Laportea bulbifera, Pteris biaurita and Solanum viarum possessing high fidelity level have scope for further pharmacological investigation.     

Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) parasitizing wild carnivores in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand

Ixodid ticks were collected and identified from 8 wild carnivore species in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, northeastern Thailand. Six tick species belonging to 4 genera were recovered and identified from 132 individuals. These included Amblyomma testudinarium (n = 36), Haemaphysalis asiatica (n = 58), H. hystricis (n = 31), H. semermis (n = 3), Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides (n = 3), and Ixodes granulatus (n = 1). Leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis) (n = 19) were infested with 4 tick species, whereas yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula) (n = 4), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) (n = 2), and dhole (Cuon alpinus) (n = 1) were infested with 3 tick species, Asiatic golden cat (Catopuma temmincki) (n = 2) with 2 species, and marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata), binturong (Arctictis binturong), and large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha) each infested with 1 species. This information contributes to the knowledge available on the ectoparasites of wild carnivores in Southeast Asia.     

Assessment of spatial and habitat use overlap between Himalayan tahr and livestock in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary,India

Livestock grazing and associated habitat degradation are considered as major reasons for declining populations of wild ungulates. In the Himalaya, livestock grazing has been practiced for centuries. We studied the spatial and habitat use overlap between the Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) and domestic migratory livestock (Capra aegagrus hircus and Ovis aries) in the subalpine and alpine areas of the Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttarakhand, India, from April 2003 to March 2004 to investigate if there was an impact of livestock grazing on the habitat use of tahr in this area. Habitat parameters such as altitude, aspect, slope, and vegetation cover used by the tahr and livestock were quantified and compared. Minimal spatial overlap was observed. Tahr demonstrated preference for higher altitude and steeper terrain and occupied rocky terrain with comparatively less grass, shrub, and tree cover, while livestock occupied lower slope categories with low rock cover and more shrub and tree cover. Livestock used altitude, slope, and aspect categories in proportion to their availability. However, the difference in use of altitude and slope was not significant, and an increase in the population of the tahr over the years in the study area was concomitant to the decrease in the livestock use of the area, which raises doubts as to whether this minimal habitat overlap is an outcome of spatial displacement or exclusion of the tahr from certain habitats.     

Multi objective land allocation (MOLA) for zoning Ghamishloo Wildlife Sanctuary in Iran

Protected area zoning is an approach towards decreasing conflict between the possible uses of land and providing an opportunity for policy making. GIS data processing and spatial analysis along with decision analysis techniques, were used in this study to define zones for Ghamishloo Wildlife Sanctuary according to I.U.C.N. category IV in Isfahan Province of Iran. We used multi-criteria evaluation and multi-objective land allocation for zoning the sanctuary, which covers an area of about 866 km². First, we prepared a land use map of the area using classification of the IRS 6 (AWiFS) data of May 2005. For zoning this region, nine major criteria including wildlife habitat, vegetation cover, soil, distance to historical places, water resources, road, scenic beauties in the landscape, and also to residential areas, and to the core zone were considered. We used the analytical hierarchy process to derive weights of the criteria and then applied a weighted linear combination technique to combine the factors. The degree of suitability was defined by applying Fuzzy membership function. The wildlife sanctuary was divided into four zones including conservation, recreation, rehabilitation, and cultural zones, consisting of 69%, 21%, 9.5% and 0.5% of the area, respectively. Finally, multi-objective land allocation (MOLA) function was used for allocation of the sanctuary's land area to the zones which produced reasonable results.     

Estimating the defaecation rate of the African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) in Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, south-western Cameroon

Defaecation rate is an important parameter in the conversion of dung counts to elephant numbers, yet estimates of elephant defaecation rates are available for a few sites, especially rainforest sites. The Banyang‐Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary in south‐western Cameroon is no exception in this regard. We tracked a radio‐collared herd of four forest elephants, counted their fresh droppings in two 24‐h periods each month in 36 consecutive months. Our results show a mean defaecation rate of 15.9 [95% CI (12.2–19.7)] dung piles per elephant per day. We found significant monthly and inter‐annual variation in defaecation rates with implications for their predictability and forest elephant surveys. In particular, our results show that mean defaecation rates are higher for the wettest period of the year than the relatively dry months.     

Comparative Phylogeography of the Atlantic Forest Endemic Sloth (Bradypus torquatus) and the Widespread Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus variegatus) (Bradypodidae, Xenarthra)

The comparative phylogeographic study of the maned sloth (Bradypus torquatus) and the three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus) was performed using a segment of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region. We examined 19 B. torquatus from two regions and 47 B. variegatus from three distant regions of Atlantic forest. This first characterization of molecular diversity indicates a great diversity (B. torquatus: h = 0.901 ± 0.039 and π = 0.012 ± 0.007; B. variegatus: h = 0.699 ± 0.039 and π = 0.010 ± 0.006) and very divergent mitochondrial lineages within each sloth species. The different sampled regions carry distinct and non-overlapping sets of mtDNA haplotypes and are genetically divergent. This phylogeographic pattern may be characteristic of sloth species. In addition, we infer that two main phylogeographic groups exist in the Atlantic forest representing a north and south distinct divergence.     

Water quality assessment of Tal Chhapar Wildlife Sanctuary using water quality index (CCME WQI)

The present study was undertaken from June 2015 to May 2017 in Tal Chhapar Wildlife Sanctuary (TWS), Churu, Rajasthan that represents one of the unique and important grassland ecosystems in the Thar desert of India but has not been assessed ecologically. In this work the water quality assessment of the area is carried out in terms of physicochemical parameters and water quality index to fill this gap. The surface water samples were collected from the water surface with two replicates per sampling occasion for the summer, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons. The physicochemical analysis for eight parameters were carried out following prescribed methods, viz., pH-by pH meter, total dissolved solids (TDS) -gravimetric analysis and filtration, chloride- silver nitrate titration, sulphate- turbidimetric, phosphate-stannous chloride, nitrate-brucine, calcium- EDTA titration, and iron- calorimetric methods. The relationship between the parameters was analyzed using Pearson's correlation analysis, and the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) was calculated from these parameters. The study revealed water to be slightly alkaline (7.27–7.63) in the area. Most of the physicochemical parameters of water were found to be within the acceptable limits of the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) except for TDS and phosphate. The TDS showed a very strong to moderate correlation with chloride (r = 0.97), iron (r = 0.79), sulphate (r = 0.58), and calcium (r = 0.52) that revealed these ions were the major components in the makeup of the dissolved solids in the water sample. The CCME WQI indicated the water quality was fair and suitable for drinking purposes for wildlife in the area. In absence of any such prior study in the area, the overall findings of the present work is highly significant that can be used by the management authorities for future environmental monitoring and holistic development of the area.     

Behaviour and movements of sympatric civet species in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand

Five individuals of four civet species were captured and followed by radiotelemetry in a mosaic of dry tropical forest in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. Observations were made on a fifth, arboreal species which was never captured. Radio-collared civets used overall areas ranging from 3.1 to 17 km² with average monthly ranges from 0.72 to 5.4 km². Average monthly ranges, home range centre shifts and activity radii showed a linear increase with weight and size of the individual, both within and between species. Despite individual differences, there were similar behavioural responses to extrinsic seasonal changes. Civets had activity levels of 50–55% and displayed nocturnal activity patterns. The four smallest civets used trees as resting sites extensively while the largest civet, Viuerra zibetha , was always located on the ground. Faecal analysis indicated that civets fed on at least 18 fruiting tree species as well as rodents, insects and crabs. At least one of the fruits found in civet faeces, Cassia fistula , was not eaten by other major frugivores in the area. The civets showed a preference for mixed deciduous and dry evergreen forest over dry deciduous dipterocarp forest, which had a lower abundance of known food items. The role that civets play as seed dispersal agents may help in the maintenance and structuring of tropical forest communities.     

Diet of stoats at Okarito Kiwi Sanctuary, South Westland, New Zealand

The diet of 871 stoats (Mustela erminea) caught within the Okarito Kiwi Sanctuary, South Westland, New Zealand, between 2001 and 2004 was studied by assessment of gut contents. Stoat and ship rat (Rattus rattus) captures were used as a measure of relative abundance over time, and rat and mouse (Mus musculus) abundance was indexed using tracking tunnels between spring 2002 and winter 2004. There were major increases in rat captures in spring of 2002 and again in spring of 2003. Stoat captures peaked in the following summers, as rat captures declined. Rats and invertebrates were major components of stoat diet, occurring in 41% and 52% of guts respectively; birds were found in 19%. Changes in these percentages with time indicated that stoats shifted their diet from rats to birds and invertebrates as rat abundance (as indexed by tracking tunnels) decreased. The greatest impact on native species is therefore likely to be when rat abundance is declining after major irruptions, as the increased consumption of birds and invertebrates overlaps with the periods of highest stoat abundance.