Reconstruction of dopaminergic neural network and locomotion function in planarian regenerates

Planarian, an invertebrate flatworm, has a high capacity for regeneration when compared with other worms and animals. We show here for the first time that the reconstructed dopamine (DA) neural network regulates locomotion and behavior in planarian regenerates. The gene encoding tyrosine hydroxylase in the planarian Dugesia japonica (DjTH) was identified. DjTH protein was coexpressed with aromatic amino acid decarboxylase-like A (DjAADCA) in the planarian central nervous system (CNS). In addition, DjTH-knockdown planarians lost the ability to synthesize DA, but showed no change in 5-hydroxytryptamine synthesis. When the planarian body was amputated, DjTH-positive neurons were regenerated in the brain newly rebuilt from the tail piece at Day 3, and the DjTH-positive axonal and dendritic neural network in the CNS (dopaminergic tiara) was reconstructed at Days 5-7. At that time, autonomic locomotion and methamphetamine-induced hyperkinesia were also suppressed in DjTH-knockdown planarians. Planarian locomotion and behavior seem to be regulated in both cilia- and muscle-dependent manners. In DjTH-knockdown planarians, muscle-mediated locomotion and behavior were significantly attenuated. These results suggest that DA neurons play a key role in the muscle-mediated movement in planarians.     

Regeneration and maintenance of the planarian midline is regulated by a slit orthologue

Several families of evolutionarily conserved axon guidance cues orchestrate the precise wiring of the nervous system during embryonic development. The remarkable plasticity of freshwater planarians provides the opportunity to study these molecules in the context of neural regeneration and maintenance. Here we characterize a homologue of the Slit family of guidance cues from the planarian Schmidtea mediterranea. Smed-slit is expressed along the planarian midline, in both dorsal and ventral domains. RNA interference (RNAi) targeting Smed-slit results in the collapse of many newly regenerated tissues at the midline; these include the cephalic ganglia, ventral nerve cords, photoreceptors, and the posterior digestive system. Surprisingly, Smed-slit RNAi knockdown animals also develop morphologically distinguishable, ectopic neural structures near the midline in uninjured regions of intact and regenerating planarians. These results suggest that Smed-slit acts not only as a repulsive cue required for proper midline formation during regeneration but that it may also act to regulate the behavior of neural precursors at the midline in intact planarians.     

The expression of planarian brain factor homologs,DjFoxG and DjFoxD

Recent accumulating evidence revealed that planarian central nervous system (CNS) has numerous functional domains distinguished by a large number of neural markers, suggesting that primitive animals which developed CNS already had the framework of the brain development. It is of interest to investigate genes which have been acquired at an early stage of evolution for brain pattern formation. One such candidate is FoxG1 (BF-1), specifically expressed in the telencephalon and implicated in brain development. We identified a FoxG1 (BF-1) homolog gene in planarians (DjFoxG). We also identified a FoxD class gene, DjFoxD. DjFoxG is expressed in the body and brain, with strong expression in the mesenchyme surrounding the gut. During regeneration, an intense anterior signal is detected, but this is not restricted to the head. DjFoxD is expressed in the mid-apex of the head, between the two lobes of the brain. Strong expression was detected in the mid-anterior blastema. Thus, FoxG and FoxD homologs do exist in planarians, but are regulated differently than those in vertebrates.     

Wnt signaling is required for antero-posterior patterning of the planarian brain

Wnt signaling functions in axis formation and morphogenesis in various animals and organs. Here we report that Wnt signaling is required for proper brain patterning during planarian brain regeneration. We showed here that one of the Wnt homologues in the planarian Dugesia japonica, DjwntA, was expressed in the posterior region of the brain. When DjwntA-knockdown planarians were produced by RNAi, they could regenerate their heads at the anterior ends of the fragments, but formed ectopic eyes with irregular posterior lateral branches and brain expansion. This suggests that the Wnt signal may be involved in antero-posterior (A-P) patterning of the planarian brain, as in vertebrates. We also investigated the relationship between the DjwntA and nou-darake/FGFR signal systems, as knockdown planarians of these genes showed similar phenotypes. Double-knockdown planarians of these genes did not show any synergistic effects, suggesting that the two signal systems function independently in the process of brain regeneration, which accords with the fact that nou-darake was expressed earlier than DjwntA during brain regeneration. These observations suggest that the nou-darake/FGFR signal may be involved in brain rudiment formation during the early stage of head regeneration, and subsequently the DjwntA signal may function in A-P patterning of the brain rudiment.     

Characterization of tyramine beta-hydroxylase in planarian Dugesia japonica: cloning and expression

The planarian Dugesia japonica has a relatively well-organized central nervous system (CNS) consisting of a brain and ventral nerve cords (VNCs), and can completely regenerate it CNS utilizing pluripotent stem cells present in the mesenchymal space. This remarkable capacity has begun to be exploited for research on neural regeneration. Recently, several kinds of molecular markers for labeling of neural subtypes have been reported in planarians. These molecular markers are useful for visualizing the distinct neural populations in planarians. In this study, we isolated a cDNA encoding tyramine beta-hydroxylase (TBH), an octopamine (OA) biosynthetic enzyme, by degenerate PCR in the planarian D. japonica, and named it DjTBH (D. japonica tyramine beta-hydroxylase). In order to examine whether DjTBH contributes to OA biosynthesis, we measured the OA content in DjTBH-knockdown planarians created by RNA interference. In addition, to examine the specificity of DjTBH for OA biosynthesis, we measured not only OA content but also noradrenaline (NA) content, because NA is synthesized by a pathway similar to that for OA. According to high-performance liquid chromatography analysis, the amount of OA, but not NA, was significantly decreased in DjTBH-knockdown planarians. In addition, we produced anti-DjTBH antibody to visualize the octopaminergic neural network. As shown by immunofluorescence analysis using anti-DjTBH antibody, DjTBH-immunopositive neurons were mainly distributed in the head region, and elongated their dendrites and/or axons along the VNCs. In order to visualize octopaminergic and dopaminergic nervous systems (phenolamine/catecholamine nervous system) in the planarian CNS, double-immunofluorescence analysis was carried out using both anti-DjTBH antibody and anti-DjTH (a planarian tyrosine hydroxylase) antibody. DjTBH-immunopositive neurons and DjTH-immunopositive neurons mainly formed distinct neural networks in the head region. Here, we demonstrated that DjTBH clearly contributes to OA biosynthesis, and DjTBH antibody is a useful tool for detecting octopaminergic neurons in planarians.     

Identification of genes needed for regeneration, stem cell function, and tissue homeostasis by systematic gene perturbation in planaria

Planarians have been a classic model system for the study of regeneration, tissue homeostasis, and stem cell biology for over a century, but they have not historically been accessible to extensive genetic manipulation. Here we utilize RNA-mediated genetic interference (RNAi) to introduce large-scale gene inhibition studies to the classic planarian system. 1065 genes were screened. Phenotypes associated with the RNAi of 240 genes identify many specific defects in the process of regeneration and define the major categories of defects planarians display following gene perturbations. We assessed the effects of inhibiting genes with RNAi on tissue homeostasis in intact animals and stem cell (neoblast) proliferation in amputated animals identifying candidate stem cell, regeneration, and homeostasis regulators. Our study demonstrates the great potential of RNAi for the systematic exploration of gene function in understudied organisms and establishes planarians as a powerful model for the molecular genetic study of stem cells, regeneration, and tissue homeostasis.     

A LIM-homeobox gene is required for differentiation of Wnt-expressing cells at the posterior end of the planarian body

Planarians have high regenerative ability, which is dependent on pluripotent adult somatic stem cells called neoblasts. Recently, canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling was shown to be required for posterior specification, and Hedgehog signaling was shown to control anterior-posterior polarity via activation of the Djwnt1/P-1 gene at the posterior end of planarians. Thus, various signaling molecules play an important role in planarian stem cell regulation. However, the molecular mechanisms directly involved in stem cell differentiation have remained unclear. Here, we demonstrate that one of the planarian LIM-homeobox genes, Djislet, is required for the differentiation of Djwnt1/P-1-expressing cells from stem cells at the posterior end. RNA interference (RNAi)-treated planarians of Djislet [Djislet(RNAi)] show a tail-less phenotype. Thus, we speculated that Djislet might be involved in activation of the Wnt signaling pathway in the posterior blastema. When we carefully examined the expression pattern of Djwnt1/P-1 by quantitative real-time PCR during posterior regeneration, we found two phases of Djwnt1/P-1 expression: the first phase was detected in the differentiated cells in the old tissue in the early stage of regeneration and then a second phase was observed in the cells derived from stem cells in the posterior blastema. Interestingly, Djislet is expressed in stem cell-derived DjPiwiA- and Djwnt1/P-1-expressing cells, and Djislet(RNAi) only perturbed the second phase. Thus, we propose that Djislet might act to trigger the differentiation of cells expressing Djwnt1/P-1 from stem cells.     

Morphological and functional recovery of the planarian photosensing system during head regeneration

When exposed to light, planarians display a distinctive light avoidance behavior known as negative phototaxis. Such behavior is temporarily suppressed when animals are decapitated, and it is restored once the animals regenerate their heads. Head regeneration and the simple but reproducible phototactic response of planarians provides an opportunity to study the association between neuronal differentiation and the establishment of behavior in a simple, experimentally tractable metazoan. We have devised a phototaxis assay system to analyze light response recovery during head regeneration and determined that light evasion is markedly re-established 5 days after amputation. Immunohistological and in situ hybridization studies indicate that the photoreceptors and optic nerve connections to the brain begin by the fourth day of cephalic regeneration. To experimentally manipulate the light response recovery, we performed gene knockdown analysis using RNA interference (RNAi) on two genes (1020HH and eye53) previously reported to be expressed at 5 days after amputation and in the dorso-medial region of the brain (where the optic nerves project). Although RNAi failed to produce morphological defects in either the brain or the visual neurons, the recovery of the phototactic response normally observed in 5-day regenerates was significantly suppressed. The data suggest that 1020HH and eye53 may be involved in the functional recovery and maintenance of the visual system, and that the phototaxis assay presented here can be used to reliably quantify the negative phototactic behavior of planarians.     

Planarian homologs of netrin and netrin receptor are required for proper regeneration of the central nervous system and the maintenance of nervous system architecture

Conserved axon guidance mechanisms are essential for proper wiring of the nervous system during embryogenesis; however, the functions of these cues in adults and during regeneration remain poorly understood. Because freshwater planarians can regenerate a functional central nervous system (CNS) from almost any portion of their body, they are useful models in which to study the roles of guidance cues during neural regeneration. Here, we characterize two netrin homologs and one netrin receptor family member from Schmidtea mediterranea. RNAi analyses indicate that Smed-netR (netrin receptor) and Smed-netrin2 are required for proper CNS regeneration and that Smed-netR may mediate the response to Smed-netrin2. Remarkably, Smed-netR and Smed-netrin2 are also required in intact planarians to maintain the proper patterning of the CNS. These results suggest a crucial role for guidance cues, not only in CNS regeneration but also in maintenance of neural architecture.     

Brain regeneration from pluripotent stem cells in planarian

How can planarians regenerate their brain? Recently we have identified many genes critical for this process. Brain regeneration can be divided into five steps: (1) anterior blastema formation, (2) brain rudiment formation, (3) pattern formation, (4) neural network formation, and (5) functional recovery. Here we will describe the structure and process of regeneration of the planarian brain in the first part, and then introduce genes involved in brain regeneration in the second part. Especially, we will speculate about molecular events during the early steps of brain regeneration in this review. The finding providing the greatest insight thus far is the discovery of the nou-darake (ndk; ‘brains everywhere’ in Japanese) gene, since brain neurons are formed throughout the entire body as a result of loss of function of the ndk gene. This finding provides a clue for elucidating the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying brain regeneration. Here we describe the molecular action of the nou-darake gene and propose a new model to explain brain regeneration and restriction in the head region of the planarians.     

Pharmacological assessment of methamphetamine-induced behavioral hyperactivity mediated by dopaminergic transmission in planarian Dugesia japonica

The freshwater planarian Dugesia japonica has a simple central nervous system (CNS) and can regenerate complete organs, even a functional brain. Recent studies demonstrated that there is a great variety of neuronal-related genes, specifically expressed in several domains of the planarian brain. We identified a planarian dat gene, named it D. japonica dopamine transporter (Djdat), and analyzed its expression and function. Both in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence revealed that localization of Djdat mRNA and protein was the same as that of D. japonica tyrosine hydroxylase (DjTH). Although, dopamine (DA) content in Djdat(RNAi) planarians was not altered, Djdat(RNAi) planarians showed increased spontaneous locomotion. The hyperactivity in the Djdat(RNAi) planarians was significantly suppressed by SCH23390 or sulpiride pretreatment, which are D₁ or D₂ receptor antagonists, respectively. These results suggest that planarians have a Djdat ortholog and the ability to regulate dopaminergic neurotransmission and association with spontaneous locomotion.     

Dissecting planarian central nervous system regeneration by the expression of neural-specific genes

The planarian central nervous system (CNS) can be used as a model for studying neural regeneration in higher organisms. Despite its simple structure, recent studies have shown that the planarian CNS can be divided into several molecular and functional domains defined by the expression of different neural genes. Remarkably, a whole animal, including the molecularly complex CNS, can regenerate from a small piece of the planarian body. In this study, a collection of neural markers has been used to characterize at the molecular level how the planarian CNS is rebuilt. Planarian CNS is composed of an anterior brain and a pair of ventral nerve cords that are distinct and overlapping structures in the head region. During regeneration, 12 neural markers have been classified as early, mid-regeneration and late expression genes depending on when they are upregulated in the regenerative blastema. Interestingly, the results from this study show that the comparison of the expression patterns of different neural genes supports the view that at day one of regeneration, the new brain appears within the blastema, whereas the pre-existing ventral nerve cords remain in the old tissues. Three stages in planarian CNS regeneration are suggested.     

The expression of neural-specific genes reveals the structural and molecular complexity of the planarian central nervous system

Planarians are attractive animals in which various questions related to the central nervous system (CNS) can be addressed, such as its origin and evolution, its degree of functional conservation among different organisms, and the plasticity and regenerative capabilities of neural cells and networks. However, it is first necessary to characterize at the gene expression level how this CNS is organized in intact animals. Previous studies have shown that the planarian brain can be divided into at least three distinct domains based on the expression of otd/Otx-related genes. In order to further characterize the planarian brain, we have recently isolated a large number of planarian neural-specific genes through DNA microarrays and ESTs projects. Here, we describe new molecular domains within the brain of intact planarians by the expression of 16 planarian neural-specific genes, including the putative homologues of protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor, synaptotagmin VII, slit, G protein and glutamate and acetylcholine receptors, by in situ hybridization in both whole-mount and transverse sections. Our results indicate that planarian otd/Otx-positive domains can be further subdivided into distinct molecular regions according to the expression of different neural genes. We found differences at the gene expression level between the dorsal and ventral sides of the brain, along its antero-posterior axis and also between the proximal and distal parts of the brain lateral branches. This high level of regionalization in the planarian brain contrasts with its apparent simplicity at the morphological level.     

EGFR signaling regulates cell proliferation, differentiation and morphogenesis during planarian regeneration and homeostasis

Similarly to development, the process of regeneration requires that cells accurately sense and respond to their external environment. Thus, intrinsic cues must be integrated with signals from the surrounding environment to ensure appropriate temporal and spatial regulation of tissue regeneration. Identifying the signaling pathways that control these events will not only provide insights into a fascinating biological phenomenon but may also yield new molecular targets for use in regenerative medicine. Among classical models to study regeneration, freshwater planarians represent an attractive system in which to investigate the signals that regulate cell proliferation and differentiation, as well as the proper patterning of the structures being regenerated. Recent studies in planarians have begun to define the role of conserved signaling pathways during regeneration. Here, we extend these analyses to the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor pathway. We report the characterization of three epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptors in the planarian Schmidtea mediterranea. Silencing of these genes by RNA interference (RNAi) yielded multiple defects in intact and regenerating planarians. Smed-egfr-1(RNAi) resulted in decreased differentiation of eye pigment cells, abnormal pharynx regeneration and maintenance, and the development of dorsal outgrowths. In contrast, Smed-egfr-3(RNAi) animals produced smaller blastemas associated with abnormal differentiation of certain cell types. Our results suggest important roles for the EGFR signaling in controlling cell proliferation, differentiation and morphogenesis during planarian regeneration and homeostasis.     

Search for the evolutionary origin of a brain: planarian brain characterized by microarray

The origin of the brain remains a challenging problem in evolutionary studies. To understand when and how the structural brain emerged, we analyzed the central nervous system (CNS) of a lower invertebrate, planarian. We conducted a large-scale screening of the head part-specific genes in the planarian by constructing a cDNA microarray. Competitive hybridization of cDNAs between a head portion and the other body portion of planarians revealed 205 genes with head part-specific spikes, including essential genes in the vertebrate nervous system. The expression patterns of the top 30 genes showing the strongest spikes implied that the planarian brain has undergone functional regionalization. We demonstrate the complex cytoarchitecture of the planarian brain, despite its simple superficiality of the morphology.     

Two msh/msx-related genes, Djmsh1 and Djmsh2, contribute to the early blastema growth during planarian head regeneration

Regeneration in planarians is an intriguing phenomenon, based on the presence of pluripotent stem cells, known as neoblasts. Following amputation, these cells activate mitotic divisions, migrate distally and undergo differentiation, giving rise to the regeneration blastema. We have identified two msh/msx-related genes, Djmsh1 and Djmsh2, which are expressed in distinct cell populations of the planarian Dugesia japonica and activated, with different patterns, during head regeneration. We demonstrate that RNA interference of Djmsh1 or Djmsh2 generates a delay in the growth of cephalic blastema, interfering with the dynamics of mitoses during its initial formation. Our data also reveal that the activity of the two planarian msh genes is required to regulate Djbmp expression during head regeneration. This study identifies, for the first time, a functional association between muscle segment homeobox (MSH) homeoproteins and BMP signaling during stem cell-based regeneration of the planarian head and provides a functional analysis of how msh genes may regulate in vivo the regenerative response of planarian stem cells.