Synthesis and monoamine transporter affinity of 3'-analogs of 2-beta-carbomethoxy-3-beta-(4'-iodophenyl)tropane (beta-CIT)

The 3'-iodo positional isomer of 2-beta-carbomethoxy-3-beta-(4'-iodophenyl)tropane (beta-CIT) and other 3'-substituted analogs were synthesized and evaluated for binding to monoamine transporters in rat forebrain and membranes of cell lines selectively expressing human transporter genes. All 3'-substituted compounds displayed affinity for both serotonin (SERT) and dopamine (DAT), but much less for norepinephrine transporters (NET), with selectivity for rat (r) or human (h) SERT over NET, but only 3'-iodo-substituted phenyltropanes showed selectivity for SERT versus DAT. The 3'-iodo, N-methyl analog of beta-CIT (7) displayed 29-fold selectivity and high affinity for hSERT (K(i) =9.6 nM) over hDAT (K(i) =279 nM), and its nor-congener (8) showed even higher hSERT potency (K(i) =1.2 nM) and selectivity over DAT (415-fold).     

Binding and Orientation of Tricyclic Antidepressants within the Central Substrate Site of the Human Serotonin Transporter

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) have been used for decades, but their orientation within and molecular interactions with their primary target is yet unsettled. The recent finding of a TCA binding site in the extracellular vestibule of the bacterial leucine transporter 11 Å above the central site has prompted debate about whether this vestibular site in the bacterial transporter is applicable to binding of antidepressants to their relevant physiological target, the human serotonin transporter (hSERT). We present an experimentally validated structural model of imipramine and analogous TCAs in the central substrate binding site of hSERT. Two possible binding modes were observed from induced fit docking calculations. We experimentally validated a single binding mode by combining mutagenesis of hSERT with uptake inhibition studies of different TCA analogs according to the paired mutation ligand analog complementation paradigm. Using this experimental method, we identify a salt bridge between the tertiary aliphatic amine and Asp⁹⁸. Furthermore, the 7-position of the imipramine ring is found vicinal to Phe³³⁵, and the pocket lined by Ala¹⁷³ and Thr⁴³⁹ is utilized by 3-substituents. These protein-ligand contact points unambiguously orient the TCA within the central binding site and reveal differences between substrate binding and inhibitor binding, giving important clues to the inhibition mechanism. Consonant with the well established competitive inhibition of uptake by TCAs, the resulting binding site for TCAs in hSERT is fully overlapping with the serotonin binding site in hSERT and dissimilar to the low affinity noncompetitive TCA site reported in the leucine transporter (LeuT).     

4-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1-methylpyridinium (APP+) is a fluorescent substrate for the human serotonin transporter

Monoamine transporters terminate synaptic neurotransmission and are molecular targets for antidepressants and psychostimulants. Fluorescent reporters can monitor real-time transport and are amenable for high-throughput screening. However, until now, their use has mostly been successful to study the catecholamine transporters but not the serotonin (5HT) transporter. Here, we use fluorescence microscopy, electrophysiology, pharmacology, and molecular modeling to compare fluorescent analogs of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)) as reporters for the human serotonin transporter (hSERT) in single cells. The fluorescent substrate 4-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-1-methylpyridinium (APP(+)) exhibits superior fluorescence uptake in hSERT-expressing HEK293 cells than other MPP(+) analogs tested. APP(+) uptake is Na(+)- and Cl(-)-dependent, displaced by 5HT, and inhibited by fluoxetine, suggesting APP(+) specifically monitors hSERT activity. ASP(+), which was previously used to study catecholamine transporters, is 10 times less potent than APP(+) at inhibiting 5HT uptake and has minimal hSERT-mediated uptake. Furthermore, in hSERT-expressing oocytes voltage-clamped to -60 mV, APP(+) induced fluoxetine-sensitive hSERT-mediated inward currents, indicating APP(+) is a substrate, whereas ASP(+) induced hSERT-mediated outward currents and counteracted 5HT-induced hSERT currents, indicating ASP(+) possesses activity as an inhibitor. Extra-precise ligand receptor docking of APP(+) and ASP(+) in an hSERT homology model showed both ASP(+) and APP(+) docked favorably within the active region; accordingly, comparable concentrations are required to elicit their opposite electrophysiological responses. We conclude APP(+) is better suited than ASP(+) to study hSERT transport fluorometrically.     

Conformationally restricted homotryptamines. Part 5: 3-(trans-2-aminomethylcyclopentyl)indoles as potent selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

A series of racemic 3-(trans-2-aminomethylcyclopentyl)indoles was synthesized and found to have potent binding to the human serotonin transporter (hSERT). The most active analog was synthesized stereospecifically and the active enantiomer was shown to have high affinity binding to hSERT.     

Characteristics of thiamine uptake by the BeWo human trophoblast cell line

Little is known concerning the mechanisms responsible for the transplacental transfer of thiamine. So, the aim of this work was to characterize the placental uptake of thiamine from the maternal circulation, by determining the characteristics of 3H-thiamine uptake by a human trophoblast cell line (BeWo). Uptake of (3)H-thiamine (50-100 nM) by BeWo cells was: 1) temperature-dependent and energy-independent; 2) pH-dependent (uptake increased as the extracellular medium pH decreased); 3) Na(+)-dependent and Cl(-)-independent; 4) not inhibited by the thiamine structural analogs amprolium, oxythiamine and thiamine pyrophosphate; 5) inhibited by the unrelated organic cations guanidine, N-methylnicotinamide, tetraethylammonium, clonidine and cimetidine; 6) inhibited by the organic cation serotonin, and by two selective inhibitors of the serotonin plasmalemmal transporter (hSERT), fluoxetine and desipramine. We conclude that (3)H-thiamine uptake by BeWo cells seems to occur through a process distinct from thiamine transporter-1 (hThTr-1) and thiamine transporter-2 (hThTr-2). Rather, it seems to involve hSERT. Moreover, chronic (48 h) exposure of cells to caffeine (1 microM) stimulated and chronic exposure to xanthohumol and iso-xanthohumol (1 and 0.1 microM, respectively) inhibited (3)H-thiamine uptake, these effects being not mediated through modulation of the expression levels of either hThTr-1 or hSERT mRNA.     

Tyr-95 and Ile-172 in transmembrane segments 1 and 3 of human serotonin transporters interact to establish high affinity recognition of antidepressants

In previous studies examining the structural determinants of antidepressant and substrate recognition by serotonin transporters (SERTs), we identified Tyr-95 in transmembrane segment 1 (TM1) of human SERT as a major determinant of binding for several antagonists, including racemic citalopram ((RS)-CIT). Here we described a separate site in hSERT TM3 (Ile-172) that impacts (RS)-CIT recognition when switched to the corresponding Drosophila SERT residue (I172M). The hSERT I172M mutant displays a marked loss of inhibitor potency for multiple inhibitors such as (RS)-CIT, clomipramine, RTI-55, fluoxetine, cocaine, nisoxetine, mazindol, and nomifensine, whereas recognition of substrates, including serotonin and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, is unaffected. Selectivity for antagonist interactions is evident with this substitution because the potencies of the antidepressants tianeptine and paroxetine are unchanged. Reduced cocaine analog recognition was verified in photoaffinity labeling studies using [(125)I]MFZ 2-24. In contrast to the I172M substitution, other substitutions at this position significantly affected substrate recognition and/or transport activity. Additionally, the mouse mutation (mSERT I172M) exhibits similar selective changes in inhibitor potency. Unlike hSERT or mSERT, analogous substitutions in mouse dopamine transporter (V152M) or human norepinephrine transporter (V148M) result in transporters that bind substrate but are deficient in the subsequent translocation of the substrate. A double mutant hSERT Y95F/I172M had a synergistic impact on (RS)-CIT recognition ( approximately 10,000-fold decrease in (RS)-CIT potency) in the context of normal serotonin recognition. The less active enantiomer (R)-CIT responded to the I172M substitution like (S)-CIT but was relatively insensitive to the Y95F substitution and did not display a synergistic loss at Y95F/I172M. An hSERT mutant with single cysteine substitutions in TM1 and TM3 resulted in formation of a high affinity cadmium metal coordination site, suggesting proximity of these domains in the tertiary structure of SERT. These studies provided evidence for distinct binding sites coordinating SERT antagonists and revealed a close interaction between TM1 and TM3 differentially targeted by stereoisomers of CIT.     

Structural determinants of species-selective substrate recognition in human and Drosophila serotonin transporters revealed through computational docking studies

To identify potential determinants of substrate selectivity in serotonin (5-HT) transporters (SERT), models of human and Drosophila serotonin transporters (hSERT, dSERT) were built based on the leucine transporter (LeuT(Aa)) structure reported by Yamashita et al. (Nature 2005;437:215-223), PBDID 2A65. Although the overall amino acid identity between SERTs and the LeuT(Aa) is only 17%, it increases to above 50% in the first shell of the putative 5-HT binding site, allowing de novo computational docking of tryptamine derivatives in atomic detail. Comparison of hSERT and dSERT complexed with substrates pinpoints likely structural determinants for substrate binding. Forgoing the use of experimental transport and binding data of tryptamine derivatives for construction of these models enables us to critically assess and validate their predictive power: A single 5-HT binding mode was identified that retains the amine placement observed in the LeuT(Aa) structure, matches site-directed mutagenesis and substituted cysteine accessibility method (SCAM) data, complies with support vector machine derived relations activity relations, and predicts computational binding energies for 5-HT analogs with a significant correlation coefficient (R = 0.72). This binding mode places 5-HT deep in the binding pocket of the SERT with the 5-position near residue hSERT A169/dSERT D164 in transmembrane helix 3, the indole nitrogen next to residue Y176/Y171, and the ethylamine tail under residues F335/F327 and S336/S328 within 4 A of residue D98. Our studies identify a number of potential contacts whose contribution to substrate binding and transport was previously unsuspected.     

Comparison of computational model and X-ray crystal structure of human serotonin transporter: potential application for the pharmacology of human monoamine transporters

Abstract

The human serotonin transporter (hSERT) played a significant role in neurological process whose structural basis had been analysed for many years. Recently, the first homology model was constructed for hSERT based on the crystal structure of drosophila melanogaster dopamine transporter was published, and the inhibitory mechanism underlying the binding mode between hSERT and approved antidepressants was substantially investigated by molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. Right after this publication, the X-ray crystallographic structures of hSERT were reported, which provided a good opportunity to reassess the performance of previous simulation. In this study, the analyses of side-chain contact map, stereochemical quality and ligand-binding pocket were firstly conducted, which revealed that the constructed homology model of hSERT could successfully reproduce the reported crystal structure. Secondly, the approved antidepressant escitalopram was docked into the X-ray structure, and its binding pose was consistent with the reported docking pose in the homology model. Finally, MD simulation were performed based on the crystal structure of hSERT, and structural features revealed as critical for escitalopram-hSERT interaction by previous simulation were successfully recaptured. Thus, the newly reported X-ray crystal structure of hSERT was precisely predicted by computational model, which demonstrated its reliability in understanding the pharmacology of other human monoamine transporters whose 3-D structure remained unknown.     

Clickable photoaffinity ligands for the human serotonin transporter based on the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (S)-citalopram

To date, the development of photoaffinity ligands targeting the human serotonin transporter (hSERT), a key protein involved in disease states such as depression and anxiety, have been radioisotope-based (i.e., ³H or ¹²⁵I). This letter instead highlights three derivatives of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) (S)-citalopram that were rationally designed and synthesized to contain a photoreactive benzophenone or an aryl azide for protein target capture via photoaffinity labeling and a terminal alkyne or an aliphatic azide for click chemistry-based proteomics. Specifically, clickable benzophenone-based (S)-citalopram photoprobe 6 (hSERT K_i?=?0.16?nM) displayed 11-fold higher binding affinity at hSERT when compared to (S)-citalopram (hSERT K_i?=?1.77?nM), and was subsequently shown to successfully undergo tandem photoaffinity labeling-biorthogonal conjugation using purified hSERT. Given clickable photoprobes can be used for various applications depending on which reporter is attached by click chemistry subsequent to photoaffinity labeling, photoprobe 6 is expected to find value in structure-function studies and other research applications involving hSERT (e.g., imaging).     

Oligomerization of the human serotonin transporter and of the rat GABA transporter 1 visualized by fluorescence resonance energy transfer microscopy in living cells

Recent biochemical studies indicate that the serotonin transporter can form oligomers. We investigated whether the human serotonin transporter (hSERT) can be visualized as an oligomer in the plasma membrane of intact cells. For this purpose, we generated fusion proteins of hSERT and spectral variants of the green fluorescent protein (cyan and yellow fluorescent proteins, CFP and YFP, respectively). When expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells, the resulting fusion proteins (CFP-hSERT and YFP-hSERT) were efficiently inserted into the plasma membrane and were functionally indistinguishable from wild-type hSERT. Oligomers were visualized by fluorescence resonance energy transfer microscopy in living cells using two complementary methods, i.e. ratio imaging and donor photobleaching. Interestingly, oligomerization was not confined to hSERT; fluorescence resonance energy transfer was also observed between CFP- and YFP-labeled rat gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter. The bulk of serotonin transporters was recovered as high molecular weight complexes upon gel filtration in detergent solution. In contrast, the monomers of CFP-hSERT and YFP-hSERT were essentially undetectable. This indicates that the homo-oligomeric form is the favored state of hSERT in living cells, which is not significantly affected by coincubation with transporter substrates or blockers. Based on our observations, we conclude that constitutive oligomer formation might be a general property of Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent neurotransmitter transporters.     

Thermostabilization of the Human Serotonin Transporter in an Antidepressant-Bound Conformation

Serotonin is a ubiquitous chemical transmitter with particularly important roles in the gastrointestinal, cardiovascular and central nervous systems. Modulation of serotonergic signaling occurs, in part, by uptake of the transmitter by the serotonin transporter (SERT). In the brain, SERT is the target for numerous antidepressants including tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Despite the importance of SERT in human physiology, biochemical, biophysical and high-resolution structural studies have been hampered due to the instability of SERT in detergent micelles. To identify a human SERT (hSERT) construct suitable for detailed biochemical and structural studies, we developed an efficient thermostability screening protocol and rapidly screened 219 mutations for thermostabilization of hSERT in complex with the SSRI paroxetine. We discovered three mutations—Y110A, I291A and T439S –that, when combined into a single construct, deemed TS3, yielded a hSERT variant with an apparent melting temperature (Tm) 19°C greater than that of the wild-type transporter, albeit with a loss of transport activity. Further investigation yielded a double mutant—I291A and T439S—defined as TS2, with a 12°C increase in Tm and retention of robust transport activity. Both TS2 and TS3 were more stable in short-chain detergents in comparison to the wild-type transporter. This thermostability screening protocol, as well as the specific hSERT variants, will prove useful in studies of other integral membrane receptors and transporters and in the investigation of structure and function relationships in hSERT.     

Species-scanning mutagenesis of the serotonin transporter reveals residues essential in selective, high-affinity recognition of antidepressants

The serotonin transporter (SERT) is a high-affinity sodium/chloride-dependent neurotransmitter transporter responsible for reuptake of serotonin from the extracellular space. SERT is a selective target of several clinically important antidepressants. In a cross-species analysis comparing human and bovine SERTs, the kinetic parameters for serotonin uptake were found to be similar, however, the pharmacological profiles of the two transporters differ. Following transient expression in COS-1 cells, IC(50) values were determined for several antidepressants and psychostimulants. The potencies of the antidepressants citalopram, fluoxetine, paroxetine and imipramine were several-fold higher at hSERT compared with bSERT. No species selectivity was observed for the antidepressants fluvoxamine, and sertraline or for the psychostimulants cocaine, the cocaine analogue beta-carbomethoxy-3beta-(4-iodophenyl)tropane, or for 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Analysis of six hSERT/bSERT chimeras and subsequent species-scanning mutagenesis of each isoform revealed methionine-180, tyrosine-495, and phenylalanine-513 to be responsible for the increase in citalopram and paroxetine potencies at hSERT and methionine-180 and phenylalanine-513 to confer species selectivity at hSERT for fluoxetine and imipramine. Results were obtained by doing the forward, bovine to human, mutations and confirmed by doing the reverse mutations. Citalopram analogues were used to define the roles of methionine-180, tyrosine-495, and phenylalanine-513 and to reveal molecular interactions with individual functional groups of citalopram. We suggest that methionine-180 interacts with the heterocyclic nucleus of citalopram or stabilizes the binding pocket and phenylalanine-513 to be a steric blocker of antidepressant recognition.     

Effect of long-term fluoxetine treatment on the human serotonin transporter in Caco-2 cells

Fluoxetine is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) broadly used in the treatment of human mood disorders and gastrointestinal diseases involving the serotoninergic system. The effectiveness of this therapy depends on repeated long-term treatment. Most of the long-term studies in vivo of SSRI effects on serotoninergic activity have focused on their effects on autoreceptors or postsynaptic receptors. The chronic effect of SSRIs on the activity of the serotonin transporter (SERT) has been less studied and the results have been contradictory. The aim of this study was to determine the specific effect of long-term fluoxetine treatment on human serotonin transporter (hSERT) in vitro, by using the human enterocyte-like cell line Caco-2. Results show that fluoxetine diminished the 5-HT uptake in a concentration-dependent way and that this effect was reversible. Fluoxetine affected mainly the hSERT transport rate by reducing the availability of the transporter in the membrane with no significant alteration of either the total hSERT protein content or the hSERT mRNA level. These results suggest that the effect of fluoxetine on the expression of hSERT is post-translational and has shown itself to be independent of PKC and PKA activity. This study may be useful to clarify the effect of the long-term fluoxetine therapy in both gastrointestinal and central nervous system disorders.     

Polymorphism of the serotonin transporter gene in populations of the Volga-Ural region

Polymorphism of the serotonin transporter gene (hSERT) was studied in eight human populations of the Volga-Ural region by means of polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The populations studied belonged to Turkic (Bashkirs, Tatars, and Chuvashes), Finno-Ugric (Maris, Komis, Mordovians, and Udmurts), and Eastern Slavic (Russians) ethnic groups. Comparison of the hSERT polymorphisms in these populations established the population-specific distribution patterns of the main component of this polymorphic system in the region studied and revealed the interethnic differences in hSERT allelic and genotypic frequencies.     

Site-selective cAMP analogs induce nuclear translocation of the RII cAMP receptor protein in Ha-MuSV-transformed NIH/3T3 cells

Site-selective cAMP analogs, depending on the position of their substituents on the adenine ring, selectively bind to either site 1 or site 2 of the known cAMP binding sites of protein kinase. Treatment of Harvey murine sarcoma virus-transformed NIH/3T3 cells with such site-selective analogs results in growth inhibition and phenotypic reversion, and the combination of a C-8 thio or halogen analog (site 1 selective) with an N6 analog (site 2 selective) produces a synergistic effect. We report here that the growth inhibitory effect of the analogs correlates with the nuclear translocation of the RII cAMP receptor protein, the regulatory subunit of protein kinase type II. The transformed NIH/3T3 cells contained no detectable level of RII in the nucleus, whereas nontransformed NIH/3T3 cells exhibited a high level of nuclear RII. Within 30 min after treatment of the transformed cells with the site-selective analogs, immunofluorescence against the RII protein markedly increased in the cell nucleus. The nuclear translocation of the RII cAMP receptor protein is an early event in the reverse transformation of the fibroblasts treated with site-selective cAMP analogs.     

VNTR polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter and dopamine transporter genes in male opiate addicts

VNTR polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter (hSERT) and dopamine transporter (DAT1) gene were studied in male opiate addicts. Samples of ethnic Russians and ethnic Tatars did not differ in genotype and allele frequencies. Homozygosity at hSERT (especially 10/10) was associated with early opiate addiction, while genotype 12/10 proved to be protective. In the case of DAT1, genotype 9/9 was associated with early opiate addiction. The combination of hSERT genotype 10/10 with DAT1 genotype 10/10 was shown to be a risk factor of opiate abuse under 16 years of age.     

Voltage-dependent transient currents of human and rat 5-HT transporters (SERT) are blocked by HEPES and ion channel ligands

The hyperpolarization-activated transient current of mammalian 5-hydroxytryptamine transporters (SERT) expressed in Xenopus oocytes was studied. Human (h) and rat (r) SERT transient currents are blocked by HEPES with changes in the waveform kinetics, and the blockade of hSERT has use-dependent properties. HEPES also changes the time course of the prepriming step, especially for hSERT. Transient currents at hSERT and rSERT are also blocked by spermine and spermidine in the mM range, and by fluoxetine, cocaine, QX-314, and QX-222 in the microM range. These pharmacological and kinetic properties of transient current blockade emphasize the similarities between the transient current and phenomena at ion channels.     

Synthesis of novel 8-substituted carbocyclic analogs of 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine with activity against hepatitis B virus

Synthesis and antiviral activity of several new 8-substituted carbocyclic analogs of D-2',3'-dideoxyadenosine are described. The new 8-substituted analogs were synthesized via lithiation of carbocyclic 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine followed by quenching with electrophiles. This methodology allows for a divergent synthesis of a variety of 8-substituted analogs from carbocyclic 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine in high yields. 8-Methyl and 8-halogenated carbocyclic 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine analogs showed 6-25 fold more activity against hepatitis B virus than the unsubstituted carbocyclic D-2',3'-dideoxyadenosine.