The annual carbon budget of a French pine forest (Pinus pinaster) following harvest

Eddy covariance measurements of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon dioxide and sensible and latent heat have operated since clear felling of a 50‐year old maritime pine stand in Les Landes, in Southwestern France. Turbulent fluxes from the closed‐path system are computed via different methodologies, including those recommended from EUROFLUX (Adv. Ecol. Res. 30 (2000) 113; Agric. Forest Meteorol. 107 (2001a, b) 43 and 71), and sensitivity analysis demonstrates the merit of post‐processing for accurate flux calculation. Footprint modeling, energy balance closure, and empirical modeling corroborate the eddy flux measurements, indicating best reliability in the daytime. The ecosystem, a net source of atmospheric CO₂, is capable of fixing carbon during fair weather during any season due to the abundance of re‐growing species (mostly grass), formerly from the understorey. Annual carbon loss of 200–340 g m^?2 depends on the period chosen, with inter‐annual variability evident during the 18‐month measurement period and apparently related to available light. Empirical models, with weekly photosynthetic parameters corresponding to seasonal vegetation and respiration depending on soil temperature, fit the data well and allow partitioning of annual NEE into GPP and TER components. Comparison with a similar nearby mature forest (Agric. Forest Meteorol. 108 (2001) 183) indicates that clear‐cutting reduces GPP by two thirds but TER by only one third, transforming a strong forest sink into a source of CO₂. Likewise, the loss of 50% of evapotranspiration (by the trees) leads to increased temperatures and thus reduced net radiation (by one third), and a 50% increase in sensible heat loss by the clear cut.     

三江源地区人工草地的生态系统CO2净交换、总初级生产力及其影响因子

为了揭示三江源区垂穗披碱草(Elymus nutans)人工草地生态系统(100°26′-100°41′ E, 34°17′-34°25′ N, 海拔3 980 m)的净生态系统CO₂交换(NEE), 该研究利用2006年涡度相关系统观测的数据分析了该人工草地的NEE, 总初级生产力(GPP)、生态系统呼吸(R_eco)以及R_eco/GPP的变化特征及其影响因子。CO₂日最大吸收值为6.56 g CO₂·m^-2·d^-1, 最大排放值为4.87 g CO₂·m^-2·d^-1。GPP年总量为1 761 g CO₂·m^-2, 其中约90%以上被生态系统呼吸所消耗, CO₂的年吸收量为111 g CO₂·m^-2。5月的R_eco/GPP略高于生长季的其他月份, 为90%; 6月R_eco/GPP比值最低, 为79%。生态系统的呼吸商(Q₁₀)为4.81, 显著高于其他生态系统。该研究表明: 生长季的NEE主要受光量子通量密度(PPFD)、温度和饱和水汽压差(VPD)的影响, 生态系统呼吸则主要受土壤温度的控制。     

Seasonal and interannual variations in carbon dioxide exchange over a cropland in the North China Plain

In China, croplands account for a relatively large form of vegetation cover. Quantifying carbon dioxide exchange and understanding the environmental controls on carbon fluxes over croplands are critical in understanding regional carbon budgets and ecosystem behaviors. In this study, the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) at a winter wheat/summer maize rotation cropping site, representative of the main cropping system in the North China Plain, was continuously measured using the eddy covariance technique from 2005 to 2009. In order to interpret the abiotic factors regulating NEE, NEE was partitioned into gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (R_eco). Daytime R_eco was extrapolated from the relationship between nighttime NEE and soil temperature under high turbulent conditions. GPP was then estimated by subtracting daytime NEE from the daytime estimates of R_eco. Results show that the seasonal patterns of the temperature responses of R_eco and light‐response parameters are closely related to the crop phenology. Daily R_eco was highly dependent on both daily GPP and air temperature. Interannual variability showed that GPP and R_eco were mainly controlled by temperature. Water availability also exerted a limit on R_eco. The annual NEE was ?585 and ?533 g C m^?2 for two seasons of 2006–2007 and 2007–2008, respectively, and the wheat field absorbed more carbon than the maize field. Thus, we concluded that this cropland was a strong carbon sink. However, when the grain harvest was taken into account, the wheat field was diminished into a weak carbon sink, whereas the maize field was converted into a weak carbon source. The observations showed that severe drought occurring during winter did not reduce wheat yield (or integrated NEE) when sufficient irrigation was carried out during spring.     

Partitioning net carbon dioxide fluxes into photosynthesis and respiration using neural networks

The eddy covariance (EC) technique is used to measure the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO₂ between ecosystems and the atmosphere, offering a unique opportunity to study ecosystem responses to climate change. NEE is the difference between the total CO₂ release due to all respiration processes (RECO), and the gross carbon uptake by photosynthesis (GPP). These two gross CO₂ fluxes are derived from EC measurements by applying partitioning methods that rely on physiologically based functional relationships with a limited number of environmental drivers. However, the partitioning methods applied in the global FLUXNET network of EC observations do not account for the multiple co‐acting factors that modulate GPP and RECO flux dynamics. To overcome this limitation, we developed a hybrid data‐driven approach based on combined neural networks (NN_C‐part). NN_C‐part incorporates process knowledge by introducing a photosynthetic response based on the light‐use efficiency (LUE) concept, and uses a comprehensive dataset of soil and micrometeorological variables as fluxes drivers. We applied the method to 36 sites from the FLUXNET2015 dataset and found a high consistency in the results with those derived from other standard partitioning methods for both GPP (R² > .94) and RECO (R² > .8). High consistency was also found for (a) the diurnal and seasonal patterns of fluxes and (b) the ecosystem functional responses. NN_C‐part performed more realistic than the traditional methods for predicting additional patterns of gross CO₂ fluxes, such as: (a) the GPP response to VPD, (b) direct effects of air temperature on GPP dynamics, (c) hysteresis in the diel cycle of gross CO₂ fluxes, (d) the sensitivity of LUE to the diffuse to direct radiation ratio, and (e) the post rain respiration pulse after a long dry period. In conclusion, NN_C‐part is a valid data‐driven approach to provide GPP and RECO estimates and complementary to the existing partitioning methods.     

Estimates of CO2 uptake and release among European forests based on eddy covariance data

The net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of forests represents the balance of gross primary productivity (GPP) and respiration (R). Methods to estimate these two components from eddy covariance flux measurements are usually based on a functional relationship between respiration and temperature that is calibrated for night‐time (respiration) fluxes and subsequently extrapolated using daytime temperature measurements. However, respiration fluxes originate from different parts of the ecosystem, each of which experiences its own course of temperature. Moreover, if the temperature–respiration function is fitted to combined data from different stages of biological development or seasons, a spurious temperature effect may be included that will lead to overestimation of the direct effect of temperature and therefore to overestimates of daytime respiration. We used the EUROFLUX eddy covariance data set for 15 European forests and pooled data per site, month and for conditions of low and sufficient soil moisture, respectively. We found that using air temperature (measured above the canopy) rather than soil temperature (measured 5 cm below the surface) yielded the most reliable and consistent exponential (Q₁₀) temperature–respiration relationship. A fundamental difference in air temperature‐based Q₁₀ values for different sites, times of year or soil moisture conditions could not be established; all were in the range 1.6–2.5. However, base respiration (R₀, i.e. respiration rate scaled to 0°C) did vary significantly among sites and over the course of the year, with increased base respiration rates during the growing season. We used the overall mean Q₁₀ of 2.0 to estimate annual GPP and R. Testing suggested that the uncertainty in total GPP and R associated with the method of separation was generally well within 15%. For the sites investigated, we found a positive relationship between GPP and R, indicating that there is a latitudinal trend in NEE because the absolute decrease in GPP towards the pole is greater than in R.     

Latitudinal patterns of magnitude and interannual variability in net ecosystem exchange regulated by biological and environmental variables

Over the last two and half decades, strong evidence showed that the terrestrial ecosystems are acting as a net sink for atmospheric carbon. However the spatial and temporal patterns of variation in the sink are not well known. In this study, we examined latitudinal patterns of interannual variability (IAV) in net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO₂ based on 163 site-years of eddy covariance data, from 39 northern-hemisphere research sites located at latitudes ranging from ∼29°N to ∼64°N. We computed the standard deviation of annual NEE integrals at individual sites to represent absolute interannual variability (AIAV), and the corresponding coefficient of variation as a measure of relative interannual variability (RIAV). Our results showed decreased trends of annual NEE with increasing latitude for both deciduous broadleaf forests and evergreen needleleaf forests. Gross primary production (GPP) explained a significant proportion of the spatial variation of NEE across evergreen needleleaf forests, whereas, across deciduous broadleaf forests, it is ecosystem respiration (Re). In addition, AIAV in GPP and Re increased significantly with latitude in deciduous broadleaf forests, but AIAV in GPP decreased significantly with latitude in evergreen needleleaf forests. Furthermore, RIAV in NEE, GPP, and Re appeared to increase significantly with latitude in deciduous broadleaf forests, but not in evergreen needleleaf forests. Correlation analyses showed air temperature was the primary environmental factor that determined RIAV of NEE in deciduous broadleaf forest across the North American sites, and none of the chosen climatic factors could explain RIAV of NEE in evergreen needleleaf forests. Mean annual NEE significantly increased with latitude in grasslands. Precipitation was dominant environmental factor for the spatial variation of magnitude and IAV in GPP and Re in grasslands.     

Net ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange over grazed steppe in central Mongolia

This paper presents results of 1 year (from March 25, 2003 to March 24, 2004, 366 days) of continuous measurements of net ecosystem CO₂ exchange (NEE) above a steppe in Mongolia using the eddy covariance technique. The steppe, typical of central Mongolia, is dominated by C₃ plants adapted to the continental climate. The following two questions are addressed: (1) how do NEE and its components: gross ecosystem production (GEP) and total ecosystem respiration (R_eco) vary seasonally? (2) how do NEE, GEP, and R_eco respond to biotic and abiotic factors? The hourly minimal NEE and the hourly maximal R_eco were −3.6 and 1.2 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, respectively (negative values denoting net carbon uptake by the canopy from the atmosphere). Peak daily sums of NEE, GEP, and R_eco were −2.3, 3.5, and 1.5 g C m⁻² day⁻¹, respectively. The annual sums of GEP, R_eco, and NEE were 179, 138, and −41 g C m⁻², respectively. The carbon removal by sheep was estimated to range between 10 and 82 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ using four different approaches. Including these estimates in the overall carbon budget yielded net ecosystem productivity of −23 to +20 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹. Thus, within the remaining experimental uncertainty the carbon budget at this steppe site can be considered to be balanced. For the growing period (from April 23 to October 21, 2003), 26% and 53% of the variation in daily NEE and GEP, respectively, could be explained by the changes in leaf area index. Seasonality of GEP, R_eco, and NEE was closely associated with precipitation, especially in the peak growing season when GEP and R_eco were largest. Water stress was observed in late July to early August, which switched the steppe from a carbon sink to a carbon source. For the entire growing period, the light response curves of daytime NEE showed a rather low apparent quantum yield (α=−0.0047 μmol CO₂ μmol⁻¹ photons of photosynthetically active radiation). However, the α values varied with air temperature (T_a), vapor pressure deficit, and soil water content.     

Seasonal and interannual variation in carbon dioxide exchange and carbon balance in a northern temperate grassland

Net ecosystem carbon dioxide (CO₂) exchange (NEE) was measured in a northern temperate grassland near Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada for three growing seasons using the eddy covariance technique. The study objectives were to document how NEE and its major component processes—gross photosynthesis (GPP) and total ecosystem respiration (TER)—vary seasonally and interannually, and to examine how environmental and physiological factors influence the annual C budget. The greatest difference among the three study years was the amount of precipitation received. The annual precipitation for 1998 (481.7 mm) was significantly above the 1971–2000 mean (± SD, 377.9 ± 97.0 mm) for Lethbridge, whereas 1999 (341.3 mm) was close to average, and 2000 (275.5 mm) was significantly below average. The high precipitation and soil moisture in 1998 allowed a much higher GPP and an extended period of net carbon gain relative to 1999 and 2000. In 1998, the peak NEE was a gain of 5 g C m^?2 d^?1 (day 173). Peak NEE was lower and also occurred earlier in the year on days 161 (3.2 g C m^?2 d^?1) and 141 (2.4 g C m^?2 d^?1) in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Change in soil moisture was the most important ecological factor controlling C gain in this grassland ecosystem. Soil moisture content was positively correlated with leaf area index (LAI). Gross photosynthesis was strongly correlated with changes in both LAI and canopy nitrogen (N) content. Maximum GPP (A_max: value calculated from a rectangular hyperbola fitted to the relationship between GPP and incident photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD)) was 27.5, 12.9 and 8.6 µmol m^?2 s^?1 during 1998, 1999 and 2000, respectively. The apparent quantum yield also differed among years at the time of peak photosynthetic activity, with calculated values of 0.0254, 0.018 and 0.018 during 1998, 1999 and 2000, respectively. The ecosystem accumulated a total of 111.9 g C m^?2 from the time the eddy covariance measurements were initiated in June 1998 until the end of December 2000, with most of that C gained during 1998. There was a net uptake of almost 21 g C m^?2 in 1999, whereas a net loss of 18 g C m^?2 was observed in 2000. The net uptake of C during 1999 was the combined result of slightly higher GPP (287.2 vs. 272.3 g C m^?2 year^?1) and lower TER (266.6 vs. 290.4 g C m^?2 year^?1) than occurred in 2000.     

氮添加对内蒙古温带典型草原生态系统碳交换的影响

生态系统碳交换(NEE)是评估碳循环及平衡的重要指标,由生态系统总初级生产力(GPP)和生态系统呼吸(ER)共同决定。以往研究表明,N添加能显著促进草地生态系统植物的生长进而提高生态系统的生产力,但N添加如何影响生态系统碳交换的结论仍不明确。同时,对于不同剂量的N添加对生态系统碳交换影响有何差异也不清楚。于2012和2013年在内蒙古草原开展N添加控制实验,设置中等剂量(10 g N m~(-2)a~(-1),N10)和高等剂量(40 g N m~(-2)a~(-1),N40)两个N添加处理,并采用生态系统原位观测箱系统监测不同N处理条件下的NEE动态。结果表明:2年中等剂量N添加处理(N10)下GPP较对照分别增加了15.6%和20%,而ER的变化不显著,该处理下NEE较对照显著降低了230%和337%(即固碳能力增强)。与中等剂量N添加处理结果不同,高等剂量N添加处理下GPP和ER均有不显著的降低趋势,同时,尽管该处理下NEE有升高的趋势(即固碳能力降低),但并不显著。土壤水分改善、土壤温度下降以及叶片N浓度增加可能是中等剂量氮添加促进该生态系统固碳能力的重要机制,而土壤酸化和物种组成改变可能是导致高等剂量N添加下生态系统固碳能力低于中等剂量的重要原因。研究结果表明,不同剂量N添加对生态系统生产力与呼吸的作用机制存在差异,导致生态系统固碳能力有着明显区别。     

An initial intercomparison of micrometeorological and ecological inventory estimates of carbon exchange in a mid-latitude deciduous forest

The role of mid‐latitude forests in the sequestration of carbon (C) is of interest to an increasing number of scientists and policy‐makers alike. Net CO₂ exchange can be estimated on an annual basis, using eddy‐covariance techniques or from ecological inventories of C fluxes to and from a forest. Here we present an intercomparison of annual estimates of C exchange in a mixed hardwood forest in the Morgan‐Monroe State Forest, Indiana, USA for two years, 1998 and 1999. Based on eddy‐covariance measurements made at 1.8 times canopy height from a tower, C uptake by the forest was 237 and 287 g C m^?2 y^?1 for 1998 and 1999, respectively. For the same time period, biometric and ecophysiological measures and modelled estimates of all significant carbon fluxes within deciduous forests were made, including: change in living biomass, aboveground and belowground detritus production, foliage consumption, and forest floor and soil respiration. Using this ecological inventory method for these same two time periods, C uptake was estimated to be 271 and 377 g C m^?2 y^?1, which are 14.3% and 31.4% larger, respectively, than the tower‐based values. The relative change between this method's annual estimates is consistent with that of the eddy‐covariance based values. Our results indicate that the difference in annual C exchange rates was due to reduced heterotrophic soil respiration in 1999.     

Carbon dioxide exchange above a Mediterranean C3/C4 grassland during two climatologically contrasting years

Eddy‐covariance measurements of net ecosystem carbon exchange (NEE) were carried out above a grazed Mediterranean C3/C4 grassland in southern Portugal, during two hydrological years, 2004–2005 and 2005–2006, of contrasting rainfall. Here, we examine the seasonal and interannual variation in NEE and its major components, gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (R_eco), in terms of the relevant biophysical controls. The first hydrological year was dry, with total precipitation 45% below the long‐term mean (669 mm) and the second was normal, with total precipitation only 12% above the long‐term mean. The drought conditions during the winter and early spring of the dry year limited grass production and the leaf area index (LAI) was very low. Hence, during the peak of the growth period, the maximum daily rate of NEE and the light‐use and water‐use efficiencies were approximately half of those observed in the normal year. In the summer of 2006, the warm‐season C4 grass, Cynodon dactylon L., exerted an evident positive effect on NEE by converting the ecosystem into a carbon sink after strong rain events and extending the carbon sequestration for several days, after the end of senescence of the C3 grasses. On an annual basis, the GPP and NEE were 524 and 49 g C m^?2, respectively, for the dry year, and 1261 and ?190 g C m^?2 for the normal year. Therefore, the grassland was a moderate net source of carbon to the atmosphere, in the dry year, and a considerable net carbon sink, in the normal year. In these 2 years of experiment the total amount of precipitation was the main factor determining the interannual variation in NEE. In terms of relevant controls, GPP and NEE were strongly related to incident photosynthetic photon flux density on short‐term time scales. Changes in LAI explained 84% and 77% of the variation found in GPP and NEE, respectively. Variations in R_eco were mainly controlled by canopy photosynthesis. After each grazing event, the reduction in LAI affected negatively the NEE.     

Linking flux network measurements to continental scale simulations: ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange capacity under non-water-stressed conditions

This paper examines long‐term eddy covariance data from 18 European and 17 North American and Asian forest, wetland, tundra, grassland, and cropland sites under non‐water‐stressed conditions with an empirical rectangular hyperbolic light response model and a single layer two light‐class carboxylase‐based model. Relationships according to ecosystem functional type are demonstrated between empirical and physiological parameters, suggesting linkages between easily estimated parameters and those with greater potential for process interpretation. Relatively sparse documentation of leaf area index dynamics at flux tower sites is found to be a major difficulty in model inversion and flux interpretation. Therefore, a simplification of the physiological model is carried out for a subset of European network sites with extensive ancillary data. The results from these selected sites are used to derive a new parameter and means for comparing empirical and physiologically based methods across all sites, regardless of ancillary data. The results from the European analysis are then compared with results from the other Northern Hemisphere sites and similar relationships for the simplified process‐based parameter were found to hold for European, North American, and Asian temperate and boreal climate zones. This parameter is useful for bridging between flux network observations and continental scale spatial simulations of vegetation/atmosphere carbon dioxide exchange.     

青藏高原高寒草甸和荒漠碳交换特征及其气象影响机制

以青藏高原玛沁地区高寒草甸和沱沱河地区高寒荒漠草原为观测研究站,利用涡动协方差技术获取高寒生态系统水平上的CO₂通量以及水和能量通量,通过REddyProc、随机森林(Random Forest, RF)进行了数据后处理,探究了不同下垫面典型环境因子对净生态系统CO₂交换量(Net Ecosystem Exchange, NEE)的影响机制。结果表明：1)玛沁高寒草甸在6—7月以吸收为主,表现为碳汇,吸收峰值出现在11:00—12:00(北京时,下同)之间,而在3、4、5、8月以排放为主,表现为碳源,排放峰值出现在21:00—23:00之间;沱沱河高寒荒漠在3—8月以吸收为主,表现为净碳汇,吸收峰值出现在13:00—14:00之间;整个生长季前后(3—8月),玛沁和沱沱河的累计NEE分别为79.50 g C/m²和79.24 g C/m²,都表现为碳汇。2)不同尺度不同下垫面,气象因子对NEE的重要程度不同,小时尺度上,高寒草甸辐射对NEE的重要性最大,高寒荒漠草原蒸散发对NEE的重要性最大;日尺度...     

Carbon sequestration and ecosystem respiration for 4 years in a Scots pine forest

The net exchange of CO₂ (NEE) between a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest ecosystem in eastern Finland and the atmosphere was measured continuously by the eddy covariance (EC) technique over 4 years (1999–2002). The annual temperature coefficient (Q₁₀) of ecosystem respiration (R) for these years, respectively, was 2.32, 2.66, 2.73 and 2.69. The light‐saturated rate of photosynthesis (A_max) was highest in July or August, with an annual average A_max of 10.9, 14.6, 15.3 and 17.1 μmol m^?2 s^?1 in the 4 years, respectively. There was obvious seasonality in NEE, R and gross primary production (GPP), exhibiting a similar pattern to photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and air temperature. The integrated daily NEE ranged from 2.59 to ?4.97 g C m^?2 day^?1 in 1999, from 2.70 to ?4.72 in 2000, from 2.61 to ?4.71 in 2001 and from 5.27 to ?4.88 in 2002. The maximum net C uptake occurred in July, with the exception of 2000, when it was in June. The interannual variation in ecosystem C flux was pronounced. The length of the growing season, based on net C uptake, was 179, 170, 175 and 176 days in 1999–2002, respectively, and annual net C sequestration was 152, 101, 172 and 205 g C m^?2 yr^?1. It is estimated that ecosystem respiration contributed 615, 591, 752 and 879 g C m^?2 yr^?1 to the NEE in these years, leading to an annual GPP of ?768, ?692, ?924 and ?1084 g C m^?2 yr^?1. It is concluded that temperature and PAR were the main determinants of the ecosystem CO₂ flux. Interannual variations in net C sequestration are predominantly controlled by average air temperature and integrated radiation in spring and summer. Four years of EC data indicate that boreal Scots pine forest ecosystem in eastern Finland acts as a relatively powerful carbon sink. Carbon sequestration may benefit from warmer climatic conditions.     

增温对青藏高原高寒草原生态系统碳交换的影响

碳交换是影响草地生态系统碳汇功能的关键过程,对气候变暖极为敏感。青藏高原分布着大面积的高寒草原,其碳汇功能对气候变暖的响应对区域碳循环过程具有重要的影响。为探究高寒草原生态系统碳交换过程对增温的响应,2012—2014年,在青藏高原班戈县进行了模拟增温对高寒草原生态系统碳交换过程影响的研究。结果表明,增温对高寒草原碳交换各组分的影响存在年际差异,但总体上对碳交换存在负面影响。3年平均结果显示,增温显著降低了高寒草原地上生物量、总生态系统生产力(GEP)、生态系统呼吸(ER)和净生态系统碳交换量(NEE)(P0.05),平均降幅分别为15.1%、36.8%、19.2%和51.5%。增温条件下3年平均土壤呼吸(SR)较对照无显著变化(P0.05),但2013年增温显著降低了SR(P0.05),降幅达18.1%。增温对SR与ER的比值具有一定的促进作用,最高增幅达到40.0%。GEP、ER、SR和NEE与土壤温度和土壤水分无显著相关(P0.05),而GEP、ER和NEE与空气温度呈显著的负相关关系(P0.05)。增温引起的干旱胁迫以及地上生物量降低是导致高寒草原NEE降低的主要原因。研究表明,全球变暖会一定程度降低青藏高原高寒草原的碳汇功能。     

Carbon Dioxide Exchange Between an Old-growth Forest and the Atmosphere

Eddy-covariance and biometeorological methods show significant net annual carbon uptake in an old-growth Douglas-fir forest in southwestern Washington, USA. These results contrast with previous assumptions that old-growth forest ecosystems are in carbon equilibrium. The basis for differences between conventional biomass-based carbon sequestration estimates and the biometeorologic estimates are discussed. Annual net ecosystem exchange was comparable to younger ecosystems at the same latitude, as quantified in the AmeriFlux program. Net ecosystem carbon uptake was significantly correlated with photosynthetically active radiation and air temperature, as well as soil moisture and precipitation. Optimum ecosystem photosynthesis occurred at relatively cool temperatures (5°–10°C). Understory and soil carbon exchange always represented a source of carbon to the atmosphere, with a strong seasonal cycle in source strength. Understory and soil carbon exchange showed a Q₁₀ temperature dependence and represented a substantial portion of the ecosystem carbon budget. The period of main carbon uptake and the period of soil and ecosystem respiration are out of phase, however, and driven by different climatic boundary conditions. The period of strongest ecosystem carbon uptake coincides with the lowest observed values of soil and ecosystem respiration. Despite the substantial contribution of soil, the overall strength of the photosynthetic sink resulted in the net annual uptake. The net uptake estimates here included two correction methods, one for advection and the other for low levels of turbulence.     

Landscape-variability of the carbon balance across managed boreal forests

Boreal forests are important global carbon (C) sinks and, therefore, considered as a key element in climate change mitigation policies. However, their actual C sink strength is uncertain and under debate, particularly for the actively managed forests in the boreal regions of Fennoscandia. In this study, we use an extensive set of biometric- and chamber-based C flux data collected in 50 forest stands (ranging from 5 to 211 years) over 3 years (2016–2018) with the aim to explore the variations of the annual net ecosystem production (NEP; i.e., the ecosystem C balance) across a 68 km² managed boreal forest landscape in northern Sweden. Our results demonstrate that net primary production rather than heterotrophic respiration regulated the spatio-temporal variations of NEP across the heterogeneous mosaic of the managed boreal forest landscape. We further find divergent successional patterns of NEP in our managed forests relative to naturally regenerating boreal forests, including (i) a fast recovery of the C sink function within the first decade after harvest due to the rapid establishment of a productive understory layer and (ii) a sustained C sink in old stands (131–211 years). We estimate that the rotation period for optimum C sequestration extends to 138 years, which over multiple rotations results in a long-term C sequestration rate of 86.5 t C ha⁻¹ per rotation. Our study highlights the potential of forest management to maximize C sequestration of boreal forest landscapes and associate climate change mitigation effects by developing strategies that optimize tree biomass production rather than heterotrophic soil C emissions.     

Long‐term impacts of agricultural practices and climatic variability on carbon storage in a permanent pasture

Intra‐ and interannual variability of precipitation can lead to major modifications of grassland production and carbon storage capacity. Greater understanding of how climatic variability affects net CO₂ exchange [i.e. net ecosystem exchange (NEE)] of grazed grasslands is important to adapt grassland management and reduce risks of carbon losses. Since 2002, we continuously measured NEE (i.e. eddy covariance technique) on an upland grassland site (7 ha), divided in two paddocks grazed by heifers (intensive: 1 LSU ha^?1 yr^?1, 213 kg N ha^?1 yr^?1 and extensive: 0.5 LSU ha^?1 yr^?1, no fertilization). For years with dry and warm growing seasons (i.e. 2003, 2005 and 2008), absolute annual NEE was higher in the intensive paddock compared with the extensive paddock. The opposite was observed during years of ample seasonal rainfall and soil moisture (i.e. 2004, 2006 and 2007). Contrasted management led to two distinct plant communities being different in leaf area index (LAI), soil bulk density and soil water holding capacity. Differences in annual NEEs could thus be assigned to interactions between in carbon and water fluxes during dry and wet growth periods. Dry growth periods led to a reduction in weekly gross primary productivity (GPP) in the extensively managed paddock, whereas the GPP was maintained in the intensive paddock. In turn, during wet growth periods, GPP was similar in both paddocks, whereas N amendment and frequent defoliation significantly increased ecosystem respiration in the intensive paddock, presumably through a higher heterotrophic respiration following on a better C substrate quality and availability (rhizodeposition and senescent fine roots). In the extensive paddock, where plant cover was denser (reducing soil temperature) and less decomposable, C losses through heterotrophic respiration were comparatively smaller under wet conditions. Our results demonstrate that grassland subjected to a moderately intensive management could be more resilient in terms of carbon storage during drought and heat waves, presumably because of a trade‐off between heterotrophic and autotrophic respiration.