Conservation,management, and restoration of coral reefs

The 8th International Conference on Coelenterate Biology (ICCB 8) was held in Eilat, Israel from December 1st to 5th 2013. The conference included 15 sessions, one of which discussed the latest information on the conservation, management, and restoration of Coelenterata in different parts of the world. A total of 16 oral presentations and 5 posters were presented in this session. Of these 21 papers, 11 were related to conservation issues, 7 described management, and 3 discussed restoration. This session provided insights on the current conservation, management, and restoration of coelenterates in different parts of the world.     

Fine sediment trapping in two mangrove-fringed estuaries exposed to contrasting land-use intensity,Palau, Micronesia

A comparative study was undertaken of the fate of fine sediment in the Ngerikiil and Ngerdorch mangrove-fringed estuaries in Babeldaob Island, Palau, Micronesia, in 2002. The mangroves comprised 3.8% of each catchment area, and in both systems, they trapped about 30% of the riverine sediment. Mangroves are important buffers protecting fringing coral reefs from excessive sedimentation. The sediment yield was significantly higher in the Ngerikiil River catchment (150 tons km^–2 yr^–1) that has been extensively cleared and farmed, than in Ngerdorch River catchment (1.9 tons km^–2 yr^–1) that was still relatively pristine during the study period.This revised version wa published online in March 2005 with corrections to the issue cover date.     

Characterization and management of the commercial sector of the Pohnpei coral reef fishery,Micronesia

Commercial coral reef fisheries in Pohnpei (Micronesia) extract approximately 1,521 kg of reef fish daily (∼500 MT year⁻¹) from 152 km² of surrounding reef. More than 153 species were represented during surveys, with 25 species very common or common within combined-gear catch. Acanthurids contributed the greatest to catch volume, with bluespine unicornfish, Naso unicornis, and orangespine unicornfish, Naso lituratus, among the most frequently observed herbivores. Nighttime spearfishing was the dominant fishing method and inner lagoon areas were primarily targeted. A seasonal sales ban (March–April), intended to reduce pressure on reproductively active serranids, significantly increased the capture volume of other families. Catch was significantly greater during periods of low lunar illumination, suggesting higher fishing success or greater effort, or both. The marketed catch was dominated by juveniles and small adults, based on fishes of known size at sexual maturity. Artificially depressed market prices appear to be catalyzing (potential or realized) overfishing by increasing the volume of fish needed to offset rising fuel prices. These results support the need for comprehensive fisheries management that produces sustainable fishing and marketing practices and promotes shared management and enforced responsibilities between communities and the state. To be effective, management should prohibit nighttime spearfishing. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cryptic diversity, molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the rock- and leaf litter-dwelling land snails of Belau (Republic of Palau, Oceania)

The endemic diplommatinid land snails (Caenogastropoda: Mollusca) of Belau (Republic of Palau, Micronesia) are an exceptionally diverse group of largely undescribed species distributed among rock and leaf litter habitats on most of Belau's 586 islands. Diplommatinid shell morphology (e.g. shell sculpture) reflects habitat type. In this study, I analysed a subset of the 90 diplommatinid species representing a broad geographical spread of islands in order to reveal the species' phylogenetic relationships and biogeography within the Belau archipelago. Diplommatinid species from the islands of Yap, Pohnpei, Kosrae and Guam are also included in the analysis. One nuclear (28S rRNA) and two mitochondrial (16S rRNA, COI) gene regions comprising 1906bp were used for phylogenetic reconstruction. Results show that (i) the Belau Diplommatinidae are not monophyletic, as Guam and Yap species should be included as part of the radiation, (ii) Pohnpei and Kosrae species are highly divergent from Belau diplommatinids, (iii) there is little evidence for in situ radiation within individual Belau islands, (iv) spined and heavily calcified rock-dwelling species form a well-supported clade, and (v) Belau diplommatinid genera are in need of revision.     

Landscape Patterns of Tropical Forest Recovery in the Republic of Palau1

A GIS (geographic information systems) database was constructed from aerial photographs, a vegetation map, and topographic map data of the Ngeremeduu Bay Drainage Area (NBDA), Palau, to examine relationships between upland land cover dynamics, environmental variables, and past land use. In 1992, 82.9 percent of the NBDA was forest, 16.6 percent was grassland, and 0.5 percent consisted of village areas. Between 1947 and 1992, there was a 11.2 percent reduction of grassland area primarily due to a 10.9 percent increase in forest cover. These land cover changes led to larger, more continuous stretches of forest and numerous, highly fragmented grassland patches. Significant relationships (P 0.001) were found between the spatial distribution of forest and grassland cover and slope, elevation, soil pH, and percent soil organic matter. These patterns, however, may have resulted from past farm site selection rather than from ecological relationships. Our results indicate that areas of forest expansion were significantly (P 0.001) associated with the location of abandoned agricultural communities. In addition, over 92 percent of areas of forest expansion occurred within 100 m of established forest. These results suggest that the proximity of established forest facilitate forest recovery following human disturbance.     

Shifting paradigms in restoration of the world's coral reefs

Many ecosystems around the world are rapidly deteriorating due to both local and global pressures, and perhaps none so precipitously as coral reefs. Management of coral reefs through maintenance (e.g., marine‐protected areas, catchment management to improve water quality), restoration, as well as global and national governmental agreements to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., the 2015 Paris Agreement) is critical for the persistence of coral reefs. Despite these initiatives, the health and abundance of corals reefs are rapidly declining and other solutions will soon be required. We have recently discussed options for using assisted evolution (i.e., selective breeding, assisted gene flow, conditioning or epigenetic programming, and the manipulation of the coral microbiome) as a means to enhance environmental stress tolerance of corals and the success of coral reef restoration efforts. The 2014–2016 global coral bleaching event has sharpened the focus on such interventionist approaches. We highlight the necessity for consideration of alternative (e.g., hybrid) ecosystem states, discuss traits of resilient corals and coral reef ecosystems, and propose a decision tree for incorporating assisted evolution into restoration initiatives to enhance climate resilience of coral reefs.     

History of plant introductions to Pohnpei, Micronesia and the role of the Pohnpei agriculture station

The history of plant introductions to tropical countries can often be determined by studying the history of their botanical gardens, arboreta, and agricultural experiment stations. Pohnpei has been a center for plant introductions in Micronesia for more than 100 years. Beginning in the 1830s foreign visitors and settlers brought in new crops and ornamental plants. Purposeful introductions to support agricultural development took place during the colonial regimes of Germany, Japan, and the United States. The illustrious history and significant role played by the Pohnpei Agriculture Station—once one of the foremost centers in the world for the study of tropical agriculture—and its current situation are discussed. For the first time ever, a comprehensive list is provided of 433 plant species, hybrids, cultivars, and varieties introduced to the island, including 403 taxa grown at the Station.

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Kapidelongodohn Soangsoangen Tuhke Nan Dekehn Pohnpei Oh Pwukoah Kesempwal En Agriculture Station En Pohnpei

Resumen  Kawewehpen poadepen kapidelongodohn soangsoangen tuhkekan nan kahndekehkan kalapw wiawi sang petehkpen en wehi pwukan arail wasahn nak en tuhke, kasansal en tuhke, oh ropirop en tuhke. Pohnpei wia wasahn neknek en tuhke kesempwal sangete sohnpar 100 samwalahro. Tepda nan pahr 1830, mehn likihkan oh sohn seilok kan kapidelongodo soangsoangen tuhke en mwenge oh mehn kalingan. Tuhke mehn wia keirdahn wehi pil wiawi nan mwein Sehmen, Sapahn, oh Amerika. Nan daropwe wet mie kawewehpen poadepoad oh pwukoah kesempwal en Pohnpei Agriculture Station—me rahn teio kin wia ehu wasa keieu kesempwal nan sampah ong ni ropirop en tuhke oh ia mwomwen wasa rahn wet. Daropwe wet pil kilelehdi eden soangsoangen tuhke 433 kapidelongodohng Pohnpei iangahngki meh 403 me pweida oh kak diarek nan Agriculture Station en Pohnpei.

     

Holocene uplifted coral reefs in Lanyu and Lutao Islands to the southeast of Taiwan

Lanyu and Lutao Islands to the southeast of Taiwan are located in the northern extension of the Luzon Arc. Crustal deformation of these islands provides a key to understand the collision of the Luzon Arc against Taiwan. To clarify the style and the rate of vertical movement during the Holocene, uplifted coral reefs fringing these two islands were investigated. Living corals were also investigated for comparison with fossil corals. It was found that Isopora palifera lives dominantly in the upper slope of the present-day fringing coral reefs in Lanyu Island at an average depth of 101 ± 46 cm (one standard deviation) below mean sea level. Using I. palifera as an accurate indicator of paleo-sea levels, Holocene relative sea-level changes were reconstructed. Lanyu Island has been uplifted continuously at a rate of 2.0 mm yr⁻¹, at least during the late Holocene from 2,269 cal. yr BP to the present. Lutao Island has been uplifted at an average rate of 1.2 mm yr⁻¹, since at least 5,749 cal. yr BP, although it is unclear whether the uplift was continuous. The present observations, combined with the GPS displacement field and deep crustal structure, suggest that the continuous uplift is related to aseismic slip on the Longitudinal Valley Fault.     

Marine protected areas and the coral reefs of traditional settlements in the Exumas,Bahamas

This paper is about modeling the perceived social impacts of three proposed marine protected areas (MPAs), each designed to protect coral reefs. The paper argues that shared perceptions of these impacts have resulted in different community-level responses to these MPA proposals. The study is uniquely situated in the Bahamas where the government has approved setting aside 30 No-take MPAs (including three under study here) to protect the coastal marine environment. The paper is based on 572 interviews conducted during eight field trips with members of six traditional settlements in the Exuma Islands and Cays in the central Bahamas. Overall, 34% of the census population of these settlements was interviewed at least once. Key findings are that an MPA can impact in either positive or negative ways (a) community agency by the process of siting, (b) community resilience by eliminating or supporting some components of their traditional adaptations to social and natural environments, and (c) community identity by precluding or protecting customary marine access. MPA impacts to local communities determine whether those communities will support or resist proposed MPAs.     

The use of ecological,fishing and environmental indicators in support of decision making in southern Benguela fisheries

Indicators have been recognised as a useful tool aiding the implementation of an ecosystem approach to fisheries in marine ecosystems. Studies, such as the IndiSeas project (www.indiseas.org), use a suite of indicators as a method of assessing the state and trends of several of the world's marine ecosystems. While it is well known that both fishing and climatic variability influence marine fisheries in the southern Benguela ecosystem there are currently few studies in support of fisheries management that make use of environmental indicators in order to include climatic impacts on marine fish populations. Trends in ecological, fishing and environmental indicators can be utilised in a way that allows an overall ecosystem trend to be determined, and can therefore be used to aid decision support within southern Benguela fisheries. In this study trends in indicators were determined using linear regressions across three time periods, Period 1: 1978–1993, Period 2: 1994–2003 and Period 3: 2004–2010. These time periods were selected based on the timing of regime shifts within the southern Benguela, including changes in upwelling, wind stress and temperature. Each ecological indicator received a score based on the direction and significance of the observed trend with respect to fishing. To account for the impacts of fishing and environmental drivers on ecological indicators, scores were adjusted by predetermined factors, depending on the extent and direction of trends in these indicators. Weightings were applied to correlated ecological indicators to account for their redundancy, and lessen their impact on overall ecosystem score. Mean weighted scores were then used to establish an overall ecosystem score for each time period. Ecosystem classification was determined as follows: 1–1.49 = improving, 1.5–2.49 = possibly improving, 2.5–3.49 = no improvement or deterioration, 3.5–4.49 = possible deterioration, 4.5–5 = deteriorating. The ecosystem was observed to neither deteriorate nor improve across Period 1 or 2 (mean weighted scores: 2.75 and 2.56 respectively), however, during Period 3 a possible improvement was observed (mean weighted score: 1.99). This study shows that the sequential analysis of suites of ecological, fishing and environmental indicators can be used in order to determine ecosystem trends, accounting for both the impacts of fishing and the environment on ecosystem components.     

Seasonal dynamics of fatty acid biomarkers in the soft coral Sinularia flexibilis,a common species of Indo-Pacific coral reefs

Year-round fluctuation in environmental conditions have a considerable influence on the level of biomarkers, that are usually applied for monitoring marine invertebrates. To date, no data on annual cycles of fatty acid (FA) biomarkers in tropical soft corals are available. The FA composition of the alcyonarian Sinularia flexibilis containing symbiotic microalgae was studied during a year. Two major FAs, 20:4n-6 and 16:0, determined the level of polyunsaturated and saturated FAs (PUFAs and SFAs). The insignificant variations in PUFA content indicated a relatively stable level of phospholipids that formed the structural base of coral cell biomembranes. No clear relationship between the PUFA markers of photosynthetic symbionts and the solar radiation was found. The three-fold increase in the SFA level in the summer correlated with the water temperature and indicated a rise in the level of neutral lipids that made up the energy reserve of corals. The seasonal changes in FA biosynthesis, membrane fluidity, and coral nutrition are discussed.     

Late Holocene paleofish populations in Effingham Inlet, British Columbia, Canada

Paleontological studies of fish remains in laminated sediments provide a proxy relationship between fish populations and ocean climate. This study examines climate variability from approximately 500 y B.P. to 4000 y B.P. as recorded in fish remain abundances (primarily scales) collected from laminated sediments within Effingham Inlet on the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The study also discusses technical issues involving fish remains from laminated sediments, including sampling resolution, sediment volume, identification of remains and appropriate abundance considerations.The dominant species in the assemblage include Northern anchovy and Pacific herring, with lesser percentage-abundances from rockfish, hake, elasmobranches and surfperch. The data indicate that Northern anchovy experienced a shift in scale deposition abundance at approximately 2800 y B.P. with not only a greater total abundance but also a greater consistency of deposition with time. Pacific herring underwent cyclical deposition that changed little through time. Statistical analysis reveals that none of these species is directly responding to climatic signals as indicated in the lithological and palynological record, but that this could have been partially due to the sampling resolution of the piston core. Analysis indicates a lack of correlation between the two dominant species, as might be expected on the basis of their opposing lifestyle strategies with respect to sea surface temperatures.With appropriate sampling strategies, paleohistorical fish remains from laminated sediments reflect changes in population structure and behaviour for some species, illustrate basic secondary trophic information, and provide potential clues to basin-scale oceanographic/climatological variability.     

The influence of protected area management on the status of coral reefs at Misali Island,Tanzania following the 1998 bleaching event in the western Indian Ocean

The reefs of Misali Island, Tanzania suffered serious coral mortality as a result of the 1998 coral bleaching event in the western Indian Ocean. Four years after this event, Frontier‐Tanzania assessed reef substrate in Misali Island Marine Conservation Area (MIMCA) using scuba surveys. Substrate cover was compared between sites within and outside the nonextraction zone (NEZ) of MIMCA and recovery rates were estimated through reference to previous studies. Coral recovery at Misali Island following the bleaching event has generally been slow, but nonextractive management of MIMCA has enhanced coral recovery within the NEZ. The absence of fishing activities in the NEZ has sustained herbivorous fish populations and thus reduced algal overgrowth; however, outside the NEZ, diving and anchoring activities have caused further coral damage and led to increased levels of debris. Awareness‐raising programmes could lessen these problems and the NEZ appeared to be well‐placed to capitalize on nonmanageable factors that are thought to mitigate the effects of coral bleaching. In addition, the implementation of flexible zoning schemes could improve recovery rates after future bleaching events.     

Anthropogenic transformation of the biomes, 1700 to 2000

Aim To map and characterize anthropogenic transformation of the terrestrial biosphere before and during the Industrial Revolution, from 1700 to 2000. Location Global. Methods Anthropogenic biomes (anthromes) were mapped for 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2000 using a rule‐based anthrome classification model applied to gridded global data for human population density and land use. Anthropogenic transformation of terrestrial biomes was then characterized by map comparisons at century intervals. Results In 1700, nearly half of the terrestrial biosphere was wild, without human settlements or substantial land use. Most of the remainder was in a seminatural state (45%) having only minor use for agriculture and settlements. By 2000, the opposite was true, with the majority of the biosphere in agricultural and settled anthromes, less than 20% seminatural and only a quarter left wild. Anthropogenic transformation of the biosphere during the Industrial Revolution resulted about equally from land‐use expansion into wildlands and intensification of land use within seminatural anthromes. Transformation pathways differed strongly between biomes and regions, with some remaining mostly wild but with the majority almost completely transformed into rangelands, croplands and villages. In the process of transforming almost 39% of earth's total ice‐free surface into agricultural land and settlements, an additional 37% of global land without such use has become embedded within agricultural and settled anthromes. Main conclusions Between 1700 and 2000, the terrestrial biosphere made the critical transition from mostly wild to mostly anthropogenic, passing the 50% mark early in the 20th century. At present, and ever more in the future, the form and process of terrestrial ecosystems in most biomes will be predominantly anthropogenic, the product of land use and other direct human interactions with ecosystems. Ecological research and conservation efforts in all but a few biomes would benefit from a primary focus on the novel remnant, recovering and managed ecosystems embedded within used lands.     

Connectivity,biodiversity conservation and the design of marine reserve networks for coral reefs

Networks of no-take reserves are important for protecting coral reef biodiversity from climate change and other human impacts. Ensuring that reserve populations are connected to each other and non-reserve populations by larval dispersal allows for recovery from disturbance and is a key aspect of resilience. In general, connectivity between reserves should increase as the distance between them decreases. However, enhancing connectivity may often tradeoff against a network’s ability to representatively sample the system’s natural variability. This “representation” objective is typically measured in terms of species richness or diversity of habitats, but has other important elements (e.g., minimizing the risk that multiple reserves will be impacted by catastrophic events). Such representation objectives tend to be better achieved as reserves become more widely spaced. Thus, optimizing the location, size and spacing of reserves requires both an understanding of larval dispersal and explicit consideration of how well the network represents the broader system; indeed the lack of an integrated theory for optimizing tradeoffs between connectivity and representation objectives has inhibited the incorporation of connectivity into reserve selection algorithms. This article addresses these issues by (1) updating general recommendations for the location, size and spacing of reserves based on emerging data on larval dispersal in corals and reef fishes, and on considerations for maintaining genetic diversity; (2) using a spatial analysis of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park to examine potential tradeoffs between connectivity and representation of biodiversity and (3) describing a framework for incorporating environmental fluctuations into the conceptualization of the tradeoff between connectivity and representation, and that expresses both in a common, demographically meaningful currency, thus making optimization possible.     

Phase shifts and the role of herbivory in the resilience of coral reefs

Cousin Island marine reserve (Seychelles) has been an effectively protected no-take marine protected area (MPA) since 1968 and was shown in 1994 to support a healthy herbivorous fish assemblage. In 1998 Cousin Island reefs suffered extensive coral mortality following a coral bleaching event, and a phase shift from coral to algal dominance ensued. By 2005 mean coral cover was <1%, structural complexity had fallen and there had been a substantial increase in macroalgal cover, up to 40% in some areas. No clear trends were apparent in the overall numerical abundance and biomass of herbivorous fishes between 1994 and 2005, although smaller individuals became relatively scarce, most likely due to the loss of reef structure. Analysis of the feeding habits of six abundant and representative herbivorous fish species around Cousin Island in 2006 demonstrated that epilithic algae were the preferred food resource of all species and that macroalgae were avoided. Given the current dominance of macroalgae and the apparent absence of macroalgal consumers, it is suggested that the increasing abundance of macroalgae is reducing the probability of the system reverting to a coral dominated state.     

Lunar-synchronized reproductive activity in the pencil-streaked rabbitfish Siganus doliatus in the Chuuk Lagoon, Micronesia

The annual reproductive and the lunar-related spawning cycles of the pencil-streaked rabbitfish Siganus doliatus collected from Chuuk Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia, were examined histologically. Monthly collection of this species revealed that ovaries with developing oocytes containing yolk were observed from February to May and in August and September. Weekly collection of the fish showed that ovarian development and spawning after the first quarter moon were repeated during the reproductive season, suggesting that S. doliatus is a restricted lunar-synchronized spawner and releases gametes around the time of the first quarter moon.     

Increased sediment supply to the Great Barrier Reef will not increase sediment accumulation at most coral reefs

 The rate of terrigenous sediment supply to the central Great Barrier Reef (GBR) coastline has probably increased in the last 200 years due to human impact on the catchments of central Queensland. This has led some researchers and environmental managers to conclude that corals within the GBR are under threat from increased turbidity and sedimentation. Using geological data and information on sedimentary processes, we show that turbidity levels and sediment accumulation rates at most coral reefs will not be increased, because these factors are not currently limited by sediment supply. Accepted: 15 January 1999     

Evolution of vegetation landscapes during the Holocene in the central and downstream Loire basin (Western France)

Nine sites along the downstream and middle section of the Loire river at Cordemais (Loire Atlantique, France) situated in the estuary to Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil (Indre et Loire, France) were investigated. Interdisciplinary studies combined palynology, geography, archaeology, sedimentology and history, thus enabling us to reconstruct the evolution and the long-term response of the Loire valley ecosystem to natural variations and anthropogenic pressure from the Preboreal to the present in an integrated manner. The Atlantic marine transgression (between 7000 and 5000 B.P.) caused the level of brackish water to increase at Oudon between 6740⁺²⁰⁵/_–200 and 5010⁺¹¹⁵/_–100 B.P. This phenomenon, which was the first of its kind to be detected near the central Loire region (approximately 80 km from the current mouth of the Loire river), was accompanied by the development of subhalophile vegetation (Chenopodiaceae) and the appearance of dinoflagellate cysts. A regressive phase occurred during the Subboreal, about 4500 B.P., and led to the erosion of most of the estuarian sediments and to the disappearance of plant species linked to salinity at Oudon: peat deposits built up at most other sites. Human activities had an early effect; moderate deforestation took place at Champtocé about 6600 B.P. as farming was already orientated towards rearing animals. However, possibly cultivated plants were present towards the middle and the end of the Neolithic period (wheat, rye, buckwheat, flax) at about 5600 B.P. and chestnut and walnut were probably exploited in the Loire valley region at about 4600 B.P. The Bronze Age seemed to mark a phase when societies settled down (planting of vineyards) and deforestation peaked from the Gallo-Roman period onwards. The textile industry (flax, hemp), in the context of crop rotation set up during the Iron Age, developed rapidly during the Middle Ages, whereas nowadays the rearing of animals is the dominant activity in the Loire Valley, following the introduction of maize into the region in 1950.