Lead poisoning in wild populations of Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus in the Camargue and Charente-Maritime, France

Lead poisoning of waterfowl, through the ingestion of spent gunshot, has been recognized as a mortality factor for over a century. However, in Europe relatively little attention has been paid to raptors that may ingest shot embedded in the flesh of prey. The present study examines the incidence of lead poisoning in wild Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus trapped at two sites in France, the Camargue and Charente-Maritime.
Eight captive Marsh Harriers (controls) had blood lead (PbB) concentrations of 5.3–10.8 μg per dl. Of 94 wild birds trapped during the winters of 1990/1991 and 1991/1992 either in baited clap traps or in mist nets at night roosts, 29 (31%) had elevated (>30 μg/dl) PbB concentrations and 13 (14%) had concentrations indicative of clinical poisoning (> 60 μg/dl). Similar percentages of birds caught using the two trapping methods had elevated (>30 μg/dl) PbB concentrations. However, clap netting appeared to select for more heavily contaminated birds and for juvenile birds, although the two are not necessarily correlated. In the Camargue, significantly more females than males trapped in clap nets had elevated PbB concentrations.
The incidence of shot in regurgitated Marsh Harrier pellets increased significantly between October and December, indicating increased exposure to lead as the hunting season progressed. There appeared to be a parallel increase in PbB concentrations throughout the hunting season, although this could not be clearly demonstrated as sex ratios were different during different sampling periods.
Elevated PbB concentrations of harriers in the Camargue are likely to result primarily from the ingestion of shot in the flesh of crippled or unretrieved waterfowl and in Charente-Maritime, from eating crippled or dead mammals.
Other raptors at risk from lead poisoning and solutions to this problem are discussed.     

Effectiveness of Action to Reduce Exposure of Free-Ranging California Condors in Arizona and Utah to Lead from Spent Ammunition

California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) released into the wild in Arizona ranged widely in Arizona and Utah. Previous studies have shown that the blood lead concentrations of many of the birds rise because of ingestion of spent lead ammunition. Condors were routinely recaptured and treated to reduce their lead levels as necessary but, even so, several died from lead poisoning. We used tracking data from VHF and satellite tags, together with the results of routine testing of blood lead concentrations, to estimate daily changes in blood lead level in relation to the location of each bird. The mean daily increment in blood lead concentration depended upon both the location of the bird and the time of year. Birds that spent time during the deer hunting season in two areas in which deer were shot with lead ammunition (Kaibab Plateau (Arizona) and Zion (Utah)) were especially likely to have high blood lead levels. The influence upon blood lead level of presence in a particular area declined with time elapsed since the bird was last there. We estimated the daily blood lead level for each bird and its influence upon daily mortality rate from lead poisoning. Condors with high blood lead over a protracted period were much more likely to die than birds with low blood lead or short-term elevation. We simulated the effect of ending the existing lead exposure reduction measures at Kaibab Plateau, which encourage the voluntary use of non-lead ammunition and removal of gut piles of deer and elk killed using lead ammunition. The estimated mortality rate due to lead in the absence of this program was sufficiently high that the condor population would be expected to decline rapidly. The extension of the existing lead reduction program to cover Zion (Utah), as well as the Kaibab plateau, would be expected to reduce mortality caused by lead substantially and allow the condor population to increase.     

Model study on the clinical signs and residue concentrations of sublethal carbofuran poisoning in birds

The incidence of fatal poisoning of birds of prey caused by carbofuran has increased markedly in Hungary since 2007. An experimental model with broiler chickens was used to study clinical signs of sublethal carbofuran poisoning in birds and to measure the residue concentrations of carbamate in tissues after exposure. Eight chickens were treated with a carbofuran-containing insecticide orally by gastric tube at a single dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight, and clinical signs of poisoning were observed. Gas chromatography was used to determine carbofuran concentrations in the blood, muscle, and liver samples, and in stomach contents. Poisoning was characterized by typical muscarinic and nicotinic clinical signs without mortality. Carbofuran in the stomach and edible tissues of acutely poisoned birds may lead to secondary poisoning of predators and may also present risks to human health.     

Investigation on possible ecotoxicological risk of carbofuran insecticides

Carbofuran-containing insecticides are widely used agents in plant protection. Their use may pose considerable environmental risk for both the protected and non-protected predator and plantivorous birds. For defence of wild birds a model experiment was carried out on broiler chickens. In the study, eight animals were treated orally by gastric tube with a carbofuran-containing insecticide at a single dose of 2.5 mg/kg b.w. One animal served as untreated control specimen. Forage and drinking water were provided ad libitum. After the treatment, the possible clinical signs were observed carefully, blood samples were obtained from each bird and after exsanguinations liver, breast and leg muscle samples and stomach content were taken. The carbofuran concentration in blood, tissues and stomach content was determined by gas chromatographic method. Thirty minutes after poisoning, the average carbofuran concentration in breast muscle of chickens exceeded the maximum level of 0.1 mg/kg permitted in edible tissues, whereas ninety minutes after poisoning the concentration of one sample was still above the limit value. In the liver, leg-muscle and blood samples, the measured carbofuran concentration was lower than the permitted maximum value, except in the blood of two animals. The carbofuran concentration of the stomach content markedly exceeded the limit value. The sublethal concentration of the pesticides can reduce the capable of living of wild animals. Due to the sub toxic dose the poisoned birds can survive; however, the residue of insecticides can lead to secondary toxicosis of other animals.     

Genotype-phenotype correlation of a 5q22.3 deletion associated with craniofacial and limb defects

We describe here a newborn with a de novo 22.6 Mb interstitial deletion of chromosome 5q22.3. The clinical findings included brachycephaly, a high forehead, hypertelorism with prominent eyes, low-set ears, clenched hands, club feet, a prominent coccyx with hair, ambiguous genitalia, inguinal hernia, heart defect and severe failure to thrive. This case had a more severe phenotype, compared with the previous reports of interstitial 5q syndrome. High resolution multicolor banding and array comparative genomic hybridization (array CGH) analysis delineated the breakpoints at 5q22.3 and 5q31.2. There were no obvious candidate genes for the specific correlation with the phenotypes except a PITX1 gene associated with the phenotype of club feet. Further cumulative data based on the molecular approach are needed to establish the genotype-phenotype correlation and to understand the role and influence of the genes in the interstitial 5q syndrome.     

Exposure of California Condors to Lead From Spent Ammunition

ABSTRACT The scientific evidence that California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) are frequently sickened and killed by lead poisoning from spent ammunition supports the conclusion that current levels of lead exposure are too high to allow reintroduced condors to develop self-sustaining populations in the wild in Arizona and, by inference, in California. The evidence for lead poisoning and its source comes from the following sorts of data: 1) 18 clinical necropsies revealing high levels of lead in body tissues and (or) presence of lead shotgun pellets and bullet fragments in digestive tracts; 2) moribund condors showing crop paralysis and impending starvation with toxic levels of lead in their blood; 3) widespread lead exposure among free-flying condors, many with clinically exposed or acute levels; 4) temporal and spatial correlations between big game hunting seasons and elevated lead levels in condors; and 5) lead isotope ratios from exposed condors showing close similarity to isotope ratios of ammunition lead but isotope ratios in less exposed condors being similar to environmental background sources, which are different from ammunition lead. Simple population models reveal harmful demographic impacts of unnatural mortality from lead on population trajectories of reintroduced condors. Recent innovations in the manufacture of nonlead shotgun pellets and bullets with superior ballistics now provide for a simple solution to the problem of lead ingestion by condors, many other species of wildlife, and human beings: substitute nontoxic forms of ammunition for traditional lead-based ammunition. The substitution of nontoxic ammunition would be highly efficacious for hunting, economically feasible, and the right thing to do.     

Adverse health effects in Canada geese (Branta canadensis) associated with waste from zinc and lead mines in the Tri-State Mining District (Kansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri, USA)

Lead and zinc poisoning have been recorded in a variety of bird species, including migrating waterfowl such as Canada Geese (Branta canadensis), at sites contaminated with mine waste from lead and zinc mines in the Tri-State Mining District, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri, USA. The adverse health impacts from mine waste on these birds may, however, be more extensive than is apparent from incidental reports of clinical disease. To characterize health impacts from mine waste on Canada Geese that do not have observable signs of poisoning, four to eight apparently healthy birds per site were collected from four contaminated sites and an uncontaminated reference site, and examined for physical and physiologic evidence of metals poisoning. Tissue concentrations of silver, aluminum, arsenic, barium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, lead, selenium, thallium, vanadium, and zinc were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy. Adverse health effects due to lead were characterized by assessing blood δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) enzyme activity. Adverse effects associated with zinc poisoning were determined from histologic examination of pancreas tissues. Elevated tissue lead concentrations and inhibited blood ALAD enzyme activities were consistently found in birds at all contaminated sites. Histopathologic signs of zinc poisoning, including fibrosis and vacuolization, were associated with elevated pancreatic zinc concentrations at one of the study sites. Adverse health effects associated with other analyzed elements, or tissue concentrations indicating potentially toxic exposure levels to these elements, were not observed.     

Some sub-lethal effects of lead on mute swan Cygnus olor

Tissue and blood lead levels in mute swans Cygnus olor (Gmelin) were used to investigate sublethal effects of lead. Three categories of swan mortality were defined: (1) acute lead poisoning; (2) collisions; and (3) other reasons. In most tissues, lead concentrations were highest according to the cause of death in order: lead poisoning < collisions < other causes. Elevated blood levels and haematological disorders were detected in swans which had collided with objects. The possible role of elevated lead in causing collisions in mute swans is discussed.     

Lead poisoning in captive Andean condors (Vultur gryphus)

Elevated lead in the tissues of raptors, especially those that scavenge, is a common occurrence, and lead poisoning appears to be a significant problem in the ongoing recovery effort for California condors (Gymnogyps californianus). Elevated blood lead levels have been found in released birds, and a number of birds have died of lead poisoning. In earlier work, we dosed turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) with lead shot but found them to be a poor model for lead poisoning. In this study, we dosed four Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) with lead shot and found them to be quite sensitive, as two of the birds died and the other two exhibit signs of lead poisoning within 50 days. All lead-responsive parameters were affected, and regurgitation of dosed shot occurred only once. The response of the Andean condors appeared to mimic California condors, suggesting that once exposed to lead, the possibility of survival is poor. This is consistent with observations in the wild, where otherwise healthy birds exposed to metallic lead quickly succumb. At the very least, the release program has to maintain constant surveillance and an active lead monitoring program.     

Diagnosing the environmental causes of the decline in Grey Partridge Perdix perdix survival in France

We studied Grey Partridge Perdix perdix mortality during breeding to identify the environmental causes of a long‐term decline in adult survival. We radiotagged and monitored daily from mid‐March to mid‐September 1009 females on ten contrasting study sites in 1995‐97. Simultaneously, we recorded habitat features and estimated the abundance of Hen and Marsh Harriers Circus cyaneus and C. aeruginosus Red Fox Vulpes vulpes and mustelids. We experimentally tested whether scavenging could have biased predation rates. We also examined, through the necropsy of 80 carcasses of Grey Partridge, whether disease, parasites or poisoning could have been ultimate causes of high predation rates. The survival rate of radiotagged females during spring and summer ranged from 0.25 to 0.65 across study areas. Mortality peaked in May, June and July when females were laying and incubating. The direct negative impact of farming practices was low (6%). Predation was the main proximate cause of female mortality during breeding (73%) and determined the survival rate, suggesting no compensation by other causes of mortality. Ground carnivores were responsible for 64% of predation cases, and raptors for 29%, but this proportion varied across study sites. Disease and poisoning did not appear to favour predation, and scavenging was not likely to have substantially overestimated predation rates. The predation rate on breeding females was positively correlated with the abundance of Hen and Marsh Harriers, suggesting an additional mortality in areas where harriers were abundant. The proportion of raptor predation was linearly related to harrier abundance. The predation rate was not correlated with the abundance of the Red Fox and mustelids. A potential density‐dependent effect on the predation rate was confounded by the abundance of harriers. We found no convincing relationship between the predation rate and habitat features, but we observed a positive relationship between the abundance of Hen and Marsh Harriers and the mean field size. This suggested that habitat characteristics may contribute to high predation rates through predator abundance or habitat‐dependent predation.     

Thermal biofeedback and periodic movements in sleep: Patients' subjective reports and a case study

Periodic movements in sleep (PMS) is a sleep disorder characterized by repetitive leg kicks accompanied by arousals. In our clinical experience, many patients with PMS anecdotally report that they suffer from cold feet. This study explored whether there is an increased incidence of cold feet complaints in patients with periodic movements in sleep. Results indicated that, indeed, significantly more patients with leg kicks complain of cold feet as compared to patients without leg kicks. A case study was then conducted to determine whether foot thermal biofeedback training would alleviate symptoms of periodic movements in sleep. The number of leg kicks decreased from a mean of 536 per night before biofeedback training to a mean of 19.5 after training. These data lend support to our hypothesis that poor circulation may be contributing to the severity of periodic movements in sleep and that thermal biofeedback may afford an alternative treatment strategy.     

Thermal biofeedback and periodic movements in sleep: patients' subjective reports and a case study

Periodic movements in sleep (PMS) is a sleep disorder characterized by repetitive leg kicks accompanied by arousals. In our clinical experience, many patients with PMS anecdotally report that they suffer from cold feet. This study explored whether there is an increased incidence of cold feet complaints in patients with periodic movements in sleep. Results indicated that, indeed, significantly more patients with leg kicks complain of cold feet as compared to patients without leg kicks. A case study was then conducted to determine whether foot thermal biofeedback training would alleviate symptoms of periodic movements in sleep. The number of leg kicks decreased from a mean of 536 per night before biofeedback training to a mean of 19.5 after training. These data lend support to our hypothesis that poor circulation may be contributing to the severity of periodic movements in sleep and that thermal biofeedback may afford an alternative treatment strategy.     

Lead poisoning in swans and sources of contamination in Ireland

A study of blood levels in mute swans Cygnus olor in Ireland has revealed that ingested lead pellets are responsible for acute lead poisoning. Forty-two percent of blood samples from 890 live birds at one site showed elevated lead levels. X-ray examination of live birds revealed the source of contamination to be ingested lead pellets. Urban birds were shown to have higher ( P 0001) lead levels than rural birds, the blood lead levels of which were presumed to reflect natural background levels. Urban grass was shown to have elevated lead but this did not cause lead poisoning in Canada geese Branta canadensis . Post-mortem examination has shown that 68% ( n = 101) of all mute swans examined from a number of sites died from lead poisoning. Two sources of poisoning were identified; spent gunshot from a claypigeon shooting site at Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland, and lost or discarded anglers' weights at Cork Lough and at a fishing pond in Belfast, N.I. The first known case of lead poisoning in whooper swans Cygnus cygnus in Ireland is recorded which resulted from the ingestion of gunshot used almost two decades earlier. Aspects of the pathology of lead poisoned swans is discussed.     

Toxic effects of ingested lead shots in domestic fowls

Lead poisoning from ingested shots is thought to be a major cause of high mortality in waterfowls throughout the world, and some millions of fowls die each year. However, there have been no other Japanese studies regarding lead toxicity in birds from ingested lead shots. We used domestic fowls instead of waterfowls as the experimental birds, in order to make clear the distribution and the toxic effects of lead shot in the birds. In a 1-wk follow-up study, two, four, and eight #4 lead shots were administered orally. A dose-dependent increase of the lead concentrations in blood, brain, liver, kidney, lung, spleen, bone, and epidermis of the gizzard was observed. In the 12-wk follow-up study, twenty domestic fowls were used and eight #4 lead shots were administered to the experimental birds. Lead concentrations in brain, liver, kidney, bone, ovary, fat tissue, and breast muscle increased more than in the 1-wk follow-up study. The observed lead concentrations of organs in the domestic fowls were lower than those of the other species used in past studies. The blood lead concentrations increased up to the third week and a remarkable suppression of delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity in red blood cells and elevation of free erythropoietic protoporphyrin were observed in the exposed group. Body weight loss, loss of hair, and neurological symptoms were also observed. However, there were no mortalities during the 1- and 12-wk studies.     

Spatial and temporal variation in lead levels related to body condition in the Mississippi Valley population of Canada geese

Concern over lead poisoning led to progressive prohibition of toxic shot to harvest waterfowl in the 1980's. Nevertheless, waterfowl remain susceptible to ingestion of lead shot because illegal use continues and spent shot persists in soil and wetland substrates. While mortality due to lead toxicosis has subsided, sublethal effects may still affect survival and reproduction. We measured liver lead levels and body condition in 732 Canada geese (Branta canadensis interior) during July 1984 to April 1989 in southern Illinois (USA), east-central Wisconsin (USA), and northern Ontario (Canada). Although we sampled only individuals that were visibly healthy, 55 of 732 (7.5%) geese had elevated liver lead levels (> 2 ppm). Lead levels of 46 (6.3%) geese indicated subclinical poisoning (2-6 ppm) and 9 (1.2%) geese had lead levels indicative of clinical poisoning (> 6 ppm). A greater proportion of juveniles (14.3%) had elevated lead levels than did adults (6.0%), but there was no difference between genders. Lead levels were highest in autumn and winter in southern Illinois, but were low during nesting and summer, despite legal use of lead shot in northern Ontario during our study. Lead poisoning (> or = 5% of the population) was still evident during all seasons in juveniles, and during autumn and winter in adults, 5 to 10 yr after toxic shot was banned from areas where we collected geese during migration and winter. Elevated lead levels did not affect total body mass, lipid reserves, or mineral levels of geese we collected. Protein levels also were unaffected below 10 ppm, but there was evidence of decline at higher concentrations. Thus, it seems unlikely that lead exposure currently affects survival or reproduction of Mississippi Valley Population (MVP) geese via body condition, although other sublethal effects cannot be discounted.     

Dynamic regulation of leg vasomotor tone in patients with chronic heart failure.

We examined the central hemodynamic (n = 5) and leg blood flow (n = 9) responses to one- and two-leg bicycle exercise in nine ambulatory patients with chronic heart failure due to left ventricular systolic dysfunction (ejection fraction 17 +/- 9%). During peak one- vs. two-leg exercise, leg blood flow (thermodilution) tended to be higher (1.99 +/- 0.91 vs. 1.67 +/- 0.91 l/min, P = 0.07), whereas femoral arteriovenous oxygen difference was lower (13.6 +/- 3.1 vs. 15.0 +/- 2.9 ml/dl, P less than 0.01). Comparison of data from exercise stages matched for single-leg work rate during one- vs. two-leg exercise demonstrated that cardiac output was similar while both oxygen consumption and central arteriovenous oxygen differences were lower, indicating relative improvement in the cardiac output response at a given single-leg work rate during one-leg exercise. This was accompanied by higher leg blood flow (1.56 +/- 0.76 vs. 1.83 +/- 0.72 l/min, P = 0.02) and a tendency for leg vascular resistance to be lower (92 +/- 54 vs. 80 +/- 48 Torr.l-1.min, P = 0.08) without any change in blood lactate. These data indicate that, in patients with chronic heart failure, leg vasomotor tone is dynamically regulated, independent of skeletal muscle metabolism, and is not determined solely by intrinsic abnormalities in skeletal muscle vasodilator capacity. Our results suggest that relative improvements in central cardiac function may lead to a reflex release of skeletal muscle vasoconstrictor tone in this disorder.     

Embedded lead shots in birds of prey: the hidden threat

In French wildlife rescue centers, veterinarians or volunteers often note embedded lead projectiles in X-rayed birds of prey that are not the cause of admission. To know if embedded lead in birds of prey may result in lead poisoning, 77 individuals admitted in three wildlife rescue centers in France were X-rayed and separated into two groups and then submitted to a blood lead level analysis. Blood lead levels of birds of prey with embedded lead projectiles are significantly higher (224.2 μg/L, 95% confidence interval 197.0–251.4 μg/L) than those without (142.9 μg/L, 95% confidence interval 124.1–161.7 μg/L). Among the birds of prey included in this study, the same difference was demonstrated in two species, the common buzzard and the common kestrel, when analyzed separately. Clinical lead poisoning was not observed but birds of prey with embedded lead have a mean blood level higher than the threshold of 200 μg/L defining the risk of subclinical effect occurrences and 60% of the lead-exposed birds had blood lead concentrations above the threshold. This result suggests that embedded lead projectile may release lead and induce some long-term detrimental effects.     

A second gene for autosomal dominant Möbius syndrome is localized to chromosome 10q, in a Dutch family.

Möbius syndrome (MIM 157900) consists of a congenital paresis or paralysis of the VIIth (facial) cranial nerve, frequently accompanied by dysfunction of other cranial nerves. The abducens nerve is typically affected, and often, also, the hypoglossal nerve. In addition, orofacial and limb malformations, defects of the musculoskeletal system, and mental retardation are seen in patients with Möbius syndrome. Most cases are sporadic, but familial recurrence can occur. Different modes of inheritance are suggested by different pedigrees. Genetic heterogeneity of Möbius syndrome has been suggested by cytogenetic studies and linkage analysis. Previously, we identified a locus on chromosome 3q21-22, in a large Dutch family with Möbius syndrome consisting essentially of autosomal dominant asymmetric bilateral facial paresis. Here we report linkage analysis in a second large Dutch family with autosomal dominant inherited facial paresis. After exclusion of >90% of the genome, we identified the locus on the long arm of chromosome 10 in this family, demonstrating genetic heterogeneity of this condition. The reduced penetrance suggests that at least some of the sporadic cases might be familial.     

Food-niche differentiation in sympatric Hen Circus cyaneus and Montagu's Harriers Circus pygargus

Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus and Montagu's Harriers Circus pygargus are medium-sized raptors that differ in size (Hen Harrier being slightly bigger than Montagu's Harrier) and breeding system (Montagu's Harriers are semi-colonial and Hen Harriers defend nesting–hunting territories). In contrast, the diets of the two species when in sympatry are very similar. We evaluated food-niche differentiation among these coexisting raptor species and how between-species differences in body size and social system influence interspecific relationships. We present data from a study conducted in 1997 and 1998 in northeastern Madrid province (central Spain). Diet of the two species largely overlapped (55–95%) during the breeding season, but Hen Harriers preyed more often on larger species. This segregation was observed both in the average size of the primary prey (lagomorphs) and in the alternative prey (birds for Hen Harriers vs. insects for Montagu's Harriers), and was particularly apparent late in the season. Accordingly, feeding frequency of Montagu's Harriers, but not of Hen Harriers, increased later in the season. Size differences between species in prey brought to the nest were apparent for both males and females. Foraging behaviour also differed, as Hen Harriers spent more time hunting close to the nest than did Montagu's Harriers. This implies that segregation in foraging areas may also exist. Observed niche partitioning may relax the potential for competition between these species.     

Abnormalities of mutual influences of the upper and lower limbs after a stroke

The common pattern of muscle activation and specifics of interlimb neuronal connections during the performance of rhythmic separate and simultaneous arm and leg movements in the lying position in healthy subjects, which reflected functionally significant interlimb neuronal interactions, were shown. The study was designed to investigate these mutual influences of the upper and lower limbs during the performance of similar motor tasks by stroke patients. Sixteen poststroke patients with different degrees of hemiparesis performed active and passive arm movements simultaneously with stepping leg movements or without them while lying supine. It was demonstrated that the patients had a disordered common pattern of distribution of muscle activity when they performed voluntary cyclic movements with both arms. Passive movements of both paretic and nonparetic arms led to different degrees of activation of their muscles, depending on the degree of paresis: in patients with mild paresis, muscle activation was similar to that in healthy subjects; in patients with severe paresis, it was insignificant. The loading of the nonparetic arm resulted in an increase in the activity in the paretic arm shoulder flexor muscles in patients with mild paresis (which was typical of healthy subjects), while loading did not influence significantly patients with severe paresis. The combination of cyclic arm movements and stepping leg movements in diagonal synergy decreased the activity in the proximal muscles of both arms, irrespective of the degree of paresis, as it was observed in healthy subjects. Simultaneous arm and leg movements did not change the muscle activity in nonparetic legs in either groups of patients, but the activity in the paretic leg muscles even decreased. The results obtained revealed important features of poststroke motor disturbances, which caused changes in interlimb interactions and largely depended on the degree of paresis. The data could be useful for developing new methods for the performance of rehabilitative procedures in poststroke patients.