Kindlin Binds Migfilin Tandem LIM Domains and Regulates Migfilin Focal Adhesion Localization and Recruitment Dynamics

Focal adhesions (FAs), sites of tight adhesion to the extracellular matrix, are composed of clusters of transmembrane integrin adhesion receptors and intracellular proteins that link integrins to the actin cytoskeleton and signaling pathways. Two integrin-binding proteins present in FAs, kindlin-1 and kindlin-2, are important for integrin activation, FA formation, and signaling. Migfilin, originally identified in a yeast two-hybrid screen for kindlin-2-interacting proteins, is a LIM domain-containing adaptor protein found in FAs and implicated in control of cell adhesion, spreading, and migration. By binding filamin, migfilin provides a link between kindlin and the actin cytoskeleton. Here, using a combination of kindlin knockdown, biochemical pulldown assays, fluorescence microscopy, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), we have established that the C-terminal LIM domains of migfilin dictate its FA localization, shown that these domains mediate an interaction with kindlin in vitro and in cells, and demonstrated that kindlin is important for normal migfilin dynamics in cells. We also show that when the C-terminal LIM domain region is deleted, then the N-terminal filamin-binding region of the protein, which is capable of targeting migfilin to actin-rich stress fibers, is the predominant driver of migfilin localization. Our work details a correlation between migfilin domains that drive kindlin binding and those that drive FA localization as well as a kindlin dependence on migfilin FA recruitment and mobility. We therefore suggest that the kindlin interaction with migfilin LIM domains drives migfilin FA recruitment, localization, and mobility.     

Scaffold Proteins IRSp53 and Spinophilin Regulate Localized Rac Activation by T-lymphocyte Invasion and Metastasis Protein 1 (TIAM1)

The Rac exchange factor Tiam1 is involved in diverse cell functions and signaling pathways through multiple protein interactions, raising the question of how signaling and functional specificity are achieved. We have shown that Tiam1 interactions with different scaffold proteins activate different Rac-dependent pathways by recruiting specific Rac effector proteins, and reasoned that there must be regulatory mechanisms governing each interaction. Fibroblasts express at least two Tiam1-interacting proteins, insulin receptor substrate protein 53 kDa (IRSp53) and spinophilin. We used fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) to measure localized Rac activation associated with IRSp53 and spinophilin complexes in individual fibroblasts to test this hypothesis. Pervanadate or platelet-derived growth factor induced localized Rac activation dependent on Tiam1 and IRSp53. Forskolin or epinephrine induced localized Rac activation dependent on Tiam1 and spinophilin. In spinophilin-deficient cells, Tiam1 co-localized with IRSp53 in response to pervanadate or platelet-derived growth factor. In IRSp53-deficient cells, Tiam1 co-localized with spinophilin in response to forskolin or epinephrine. Total cellular levels of activated Rac were affected only in cells with exogenous Tiam1, and were primarily increased in the membrane fraction. Downstream effects of Rac activation were also stimulus and scaffold-specific. Cell ruffling, spreading, and cell adhesion were dependent on IRSp53, but not spinophilin. Epinephrine decreased IRSp53-dependent adhesion and increased cell migration in a Rac and spinophilin-dependent fashion. These results support the idea that Tiam1 interactions with different scaffold proteins couple distinct upstream signals to localized Rac activation and specific downstream pathways, and suggest that manipulating Tiam1-scaffold interactions can modulate Rac-dependent cellular behaviors.     

Mammalian Adenylyl Cyclase-associated Protein 1 (CAP1) Regulates Cofilin Function,the Actin Cytoskeleton,and Cell Adhesion

CAP (adenylyl cyclase-associated protein) was first identified in yeast as a protein that regulates both the actin cytoskeleton and the Ras/cAMP pathway. Although the role in Ras signaling does not extend beyond yeast, evidence supports that CAP regulates the actin cytoskeleton in all eukaryotes including mammals. In vitro actin polymerization assays show that both mammalian and yeast CAP homologues facilitate cofilin-driven actin filament turnover. We generated HeLa cells with stable CAP1 knockdown using RNA interference. Depletion of CAP1 led to larger cell size and remarkably developed lamellipodia as well as accumulation of filamentous actin (F-actin). Moreover, we found that CAP1 depletion also led to changes in cofilin phosphorylation and localization as well as activation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and enhanced cell spreading. CAP1 forms complexes with the adhesion molecules FAK and Talin, which likely underlie the cell adhesion phenotypes through inside-out activation of integrin signaling. CAP1-depleted HeLa cells also had substantially elevated cell motility as well as invasion through Matrigel. In summary, in addition to generating in vitro and in vivo evidence further establishing the role of mammalian CAP1 in actin dynamics, we identified a novel cellular function for CAP1 in regulating cell adhesion.     

Visualizing and Manipulating Focal Adhesion Kinase Regulation in Live Cells

Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK) is essential for cell migration and plays an important role in tumor metastasis. However, the complex intermolecular and intramolecular interactions that regulate FAK activity at the focal adhesion remain unresolved. We have engineered a toolbox of FRET sensors that retain all of the individual FAK domains but modulate a key intramolecular regulatory interaction between the band 4.1/ezrin/radixin/moesin (FERM) and kinase domains of FAK. We demonstrate systematic control and quantitative measurement of the FERM-kinase interaction at focal adhesions, which in turn allows us to control cell migration. Using these sensors, we find that Tyr-397 phosphorylation, rather than kinase activity of FAK, is the key determinant of cell migration. Our sensors directly demonstrate, for the first time, a pH-dependent change in a protein-protein interaction at a macromolecular structure in live cells. The FERM-kinase interaction at focal adhesions is enhanced at acidic pH, with a concomitant decrease in Tyr-397 phosphorylation, providing a potential mechanism for enhanced migration of cancer cells.     

Distance Variations between Active Sites of H+-Pyrophosphatase Determined by Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer

Homodimeric H⁺-pyrophosphatase (H⁺-PPase; EC 3.6.1.1) is a unique enzyme playing a pivotal physiological role in pH homeostasis of organisms. This novel H⁺-PPase supplies energy at the expense of hydrolyzing metabolic byproduct, pyrophosphate (PP_i), for H⁺ translocation across membrane. The functional unit for the translocation is considered to be a homodimer. Its putative active site on each subunit consists of PP_i binding motif, Acidic I and II motifs, and several essential residues. In this investigation structural mapping of these vital regions was primarily determined utilizing single molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Distances between two C termini and also two N termini on homodimeric subunits of H⁺-PPase are 49.3 ± 4.0 and 67.2 ± 5.7 Å, respectively. Furthermore, putative PP_i binding motifs on individual subunits are found to be relatively far away from each other (70.8 ± 4.8 Å), whereas binding of potassium and substrate analogue led them to closer proximity. Moreover, substrate analogue but not potassium elicits significant distance variations between two Acidic I motifs and two His-622 residues on homodimeric subunits. Taken together, this study provides the first quantitative measurements of distances between various essential motifs, residues, and putative active sites on homodimeric subunits of H⁺-PPase. A working model is accordingly proposed elucidating the distance variations of dimeric H⁺-PPase upon substrate binding.     

Cytoskeletal Regulation of CD44 Membrane Organization and Interactions with E-selectin

Interactions of CD44 on neutrophils with E-selectin on activated endothelial cells mediate rolling under flow, a prerequisite for neutrophil arrest and migration into perivascular tissues. How CD44 functions as a rolling ligand despite its weak affinity for E-selectin is unknown. We examined the nanometer scale organization of CD44 on intact cells. CD44 on leukocytes and transfected K562 cells was cross-linked within a 1.14-nm spacer. Depolymerizing actin with latrunculin B reduced cross-linking. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) revealed tight co-clustering between CD44 fused to yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) and CD44 fused to cyan fluorescent protein on K562 cells. Latrunculin B reduced FRET-reported co-clustering. Number and brightness analysis confirmed actin-dependent CD44-YFP clusters on living cells. CD44 lacking binding sites for ankyrin and for ezrin/radixin/moesin (ERM) proteins on its cytoplasmic domain (ΔANKΔERM) did not cluster. Unexpectedly, CD44 lacking only the ankyrin-binding site (ΔANK) formed larger but looser clusters. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching demonstrated increased CD44 mobility by latrunculin B treatment or by deleting the cytoplasmic domain. ΔANKΔERM mobility increased only modestly, suggesting that the cytoplasmic domain engages the cytoskeleton by an additional mechanism. Ex vivo differentiated CD44-deficient neutrophils expressing exogenous CD44 rolled on E-selectin and activated Src kinases after binding anti-CD44 antibody. In contrast, differentiated neutrophils expressing ΔANK had impaired rolling and kinase activation. These data demonstrate that spectrin and actin networks regulate CD44 clustering and suggest that ankyrin enhances CD44-mediated neutrophil rolling and signaling.     

A Direct Interaction between the Sigma-1 Receptor and the hERG Voltage-gated K+ Channel Revealed by Atomic Force Microscopy and Homogeneous Time-resolved Fluorescence (HTRF?)

The sigma-1 receptor is an endoplasmic reticulum chaperone protein, widely expressed in central and peripheral tissues, which can translocate to the plasma membrane and modulate the function of various ion channels. The human ether-à-go-go-related gene encodes hERG, a cardiac voltage-gated K⁺ channel that is abnormally expressed in many human cancers and is known to interact functionally with the sigma-1 receptor. Our aim was to investigate the nature of the interaction between the sigma-1 receptor and hERG. We show that the two proteins can be co-isolated from a detergent extract of stably transfected HEK-293 cells, consistent with a direct interaction between them. Atomic force microscopy imaging of the isolated protein confirmed the direct binding of the sigma-1 receptor to hERG monomers, dimers, and tetramers. hERG dimers and tetramers became both singly and doubly decorated by sigma-1 receptors; however, hERG monomers were only singly decorated. The distribution of angles between pairs of sigma-1 receptors bound to hERG tetramers had two peaks, at ∼90 and ∼180° in a ratio of ∼2:1, indicating that the sigma-1 receptor interacts with hERG with 4-fold symmetry. Homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence (HTRF®) allowed the detection of the interaction between the sigma-1 receptor and hERG within the plane of the plasma membrane. This interaction was resistant to sigma ligands, but was decreased in response to cholesterol depletion of the membrane. We suggest that the sigma-1 receptor may bind to hERG in the endoplasmic reticulum, aiding its assembly and trafficking to the plasma membrane.     

A 130-kDa Protein 4.1B Regulates Cell Adhesion,Spreading, and Migration of Mouse Embryo Fibroblasts by Influencing Actin Cytoskeleton Organization

Protein 4.1B is a member of protein 4.1 family, adaptor proteins at the interface of membranes and the cytoskeleton. It is expressed in most mammalian tissues and is known to be required in formation of nervous and cardiac systems; it is also a tumor suppressor with a role in metastasis. Here, we explore functions of 4.1B using primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) derived from wild type and 4.1B knock-out mice. MEF cells express two 4.1B isoforms: 130 and 60-kDa. 130-kDa 4.1B was absent from 4.1B knock-out MEF cells, but 60-kDa 4.1B remained, suggesting incomplete knock-out. Although the 130-kDa isoform was predominantly located at the plasma membrane, the 60-kDa isoform was enriched in nuclei. 130-kDa-deficient 4.1B MEF cells exhibited impaired cell adhesion, spreading, and migration; they also failed to form actin stress fibers. Impaired cell spreading and stress fiber formation were rescued by re-expression of the 130-kDa 4.1B but not the 60-kDa 4.1B. Our findings document novel, isoform-selective roles for 130-kDa 4.1B in adhesion, spreading, and migration of MEF cells by affecting actin organization, giving new insight into 4.1B functions in normal tissues as well as its role in cancer.     

Vinculin Phosphorylation at Tyr1065 Regulates Vinculin Conformation and Tension Development in Airway Smooth Muscle Tissues

Vinculin localizes to membrane adhesion junctions in smooth muscle tissues, where its head domain binds to talin and its tail domain binds to filamentous actin, thus linking actin filaments to the extracellular matrix. Vinculin can assume a closed conformation, in which the head and tail domains bind to each other and mask the binding sites for actin and talin, and an open activated conformation that exposes the binding sites for talin and actin. Acetylcholine stimulation of tracheal smooth muscle tissues induces the recruitment of vinculin to the cell membrane and its interaction with talin and actin, which is required for active tension development. Vinculin phosphorylation at Tyr¹⁰⁶⁵ on its C terminus increases concurrently with tension development in tracheal smooth muscle tissues. In the present study, the role of vinculin phosphorylation at Tyr¹⁰⁶⁵ in regulating the conformation and function of vinculin during airway smooth muscle contraction was evaluated. Vinculin constructs with point mutations at Tyr¹⁰⁶⁵ (vinculin Y1065F and vinculin Y1065E) and vinculin conformation-sensitive FRET probes were expressed in smooth muscle tissues to determine how Tyr¹⁰⁶⁵ phosphorylation affects smooth muscle contraction and the conformation and cellular functions of vinculin. The results show that vinculin phosphorylation at tyrosine 1065 is required for normal tension generation in airway smooth muscle during contractile stimulation and that Tyr¹⁰⁶⁵ phosphorylation regulates the conformation and scaffolding activity of the vinculin molecule. We conclude that the phosphorylation of vinculin at tyrosine 1065 provides a mechanism for regulating the function of vinculin in airway smooth muscle in response to contractile stimulation.     

mDia1 and WAVE2 proteins interact directly with IRSp53 in filopodia and are involved in filopodium formation

Filopodia are dynamic actin-rich cell surface protrusions involved in cell migration, axon guidance, and wound healing. The RhoGTPase Cdc42 generates filopodia via IRSp53, a multidomain protein that links the processes of plasma membrane deformation and actin dynamics required for their formation in mammalian cells. The Src homology 3 domain of IRSp53 binds to the actin regulators Mena, Eps8, WAVE1, WAVE2, mDia1, and mDia2. We show that mDia1 and WAVE2 synergize with IRSp53 to form filopodia. IRSp53 also interacts directly with these two proteins within filopodia, as observed in acceptor photobleaching FRET studies. Measurement of filopodium formation by time-lapse imaging of live cells also revealed that depleting neuronal cells of either mDia1 or WAVE2 protein decreases the ability of IRSp53 to induce filopodia. In contrast, IRSp53 does not appear to partner WAVE1 or mDia2 to give rise to these structures. In addition, although all three isoforms of mDia are capable of inducing filopodia, IRSp53 requires only mDia1 to do so. These findings suggest that mDia1 and WAVE2 are important Src homology 3 domain partners of IRSp53 in forming filopodia.     

Dynamin1 Is a Novel Target for IRSp53 Protein and Works with Mammalian Enabled (Mena) Protein and Eps8 to Regulate Filopodial Dynamics

Filopodia are dynamic actin-based structures that play roles in processes such as cell migration, wound healing, and axonal guidance. Cdc42 induces filopodial formation through IRSp53, an Inverse-Bin-Amphiphysins-Rvs (I-BAR) domain protein. Previous work from a number of laboratories has shown that IRSp53 generates filopodia by coupling membrane protrusion with actin dynamics through its Src homology 3 domain binding partners. Here, we show that dynamin1 (Dyn1), the large guanosine triphosphatase, is an interacting partner of IRSp53 through pulldown and Förster resonance energy transfer analysis, and we explore its role in filopodial formation. In neuroblastoma cells, Dyn1 localizes to filopodia, associated tip complexes, and the leading edge just behind the anti-capping protein mammalian enabled (Mena). Dyn1 knockdown reduces filopodial formation, which can be rescued by overexpressing wild-type Dyn1 but not the GTPase mutant Dyn1-K44A and the loss-of-function actin binding domain mutant Dyn1-K/E. Interestingly, dynasore, an inhibitor of Dyn GTPase, also reduced filopodial number and increased their lifetime. Using rapid time-lapse total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, we show that Dyn1 and Mena localize to filopodia only during initiation and assembly. Dyn1 actin binding domain mutant inhibits filopodial formation, suggesting a role in actin elongation. In contrast, Eps8, an actin capping protein, is seen most strongly at filopodial tips during disassembly. Taken together, the results suggest IRSp53 partners with Dyn1, Mena, and Eps8 to regulate filopodial dynamics.     

Identification of a Supramolecular Functional Architecture of Streptococcus mutans Adhesin P1 on the Bacterial Cell Surface

P1 (antigen I/II) is a sucrose-independent adhesin of Streptococcus mutans whose functional architecture on the cell surface is not fully understood. S. mutans cells subjected to mechanical extraction were significantly diminished in adherence to immobilized salivary agglutinin but remained immunoreactive and were readily aggregated by fluid-phase salivary agglutinin. Bacterial adherence was restored by incubation of postextracted cells with P1 fragments that contain each of the two known adhesive domains. In contrast to untreated cells, glutaraldehyde-treated bacteria gained reactivity with anti-C-terminal monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), whereas epitopes recognized by mAbs against other portions of the molecule were masked. Surface plasmon resonance experiments demonstrated the ability of apical and C-terminal fragments of P1 to interact. Binding of several different anti-P1 mAbs to unfixed cells triggered release of a C-terminal fragment from the bacterial surface, suggesting a novel mechanism of action of certain adherence-inhibiting antibodies. We also used atomic force microscopy-based single molecule force spectroscopy with tips bearing various mAbs to elucidate the spatial organization and orientation of P1 on living bacteria. The similar rupture lengths detected using mAbs against the head and C-terminal regions, which are widely separated in the tertiary structure, suggest a higher order architecture in which these domains are in close proximity on the cell surface. Taken together, our results suggest a supramolecular organization in which additional P1 polypeptides, including the C-terminal segment originally identified as antigen II, associate with covalently attached P1 to form the functional adhesive layer.     

Cytoskeletal modulation of lipid interactions regulates Lck kinase activity

The actin cytoskeleton promotes clustering of proteins associated with cholesterol-dependent rafts, but its effect on lipid interactions that form and maintain rafts is not understood. We addressed this question by determining the effect of disrupting the cytoskeleton on co-clustering of dihexadecyl-(C(16))-anchored DiO and DiI, which co-enrich in ordered lipid environments such as rafts. Co-clustering was assayed by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) in labeled T cells, where rafts function in the phosphoregulation of the Src family kinase Lck. Our results show that probe co-clustering was sensitive to depolymerization of actin filaments with latrunculin B (Lat B), inhibition of myosin II with blebbistatin, and treatment with neomycin to sequester phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. Cytoskeletal effects on lipid interactions were not restricted to order-preferring label because co-clustering of C(16)-anchored DiO with didodecyl (C(12))-anchored DiI, which favors disordered lipids, was also reduced by Lat B and blebbistatin. Furthermore, conditions that disrupted probe co-clustering resulted in activation of Lck. These data show that the cytoskeleton globally modulates lipid interactions in the plasma membrane, and this property maintains rafts that function in Lck regulation.     

Direct Interaction of CaVβ with Actin Up-regulates L-type Calcium Currents in HL-1 Cardiomyocytes

Expression of the β-subunit (Ca_Vβ) is required for normal function of cardiac L-type calcium channels, and its up-regulation is associated with heart failure. Ca_Vβ binds to the α₁ pore-forming subunit of L-type channels and augments calcium current density by facilitating channel opening and increasing the number of channels in the plasma membrane, by a poorly understood mechanism. Actin, a key component of the intracellular trafficking machinery, interacts with Src homology 3 domains in different proteins. Although Ca_Vβ encompasses a highly conserved Src homology 3 domain, association with actin has not yet been explored. Here, using co-sedimentation assays and FRET experiments, we uncover a direct interaction between Ca_Vβ and actin filaments. Consistently, single-molecule localization analysis reveals streaklike structures composed by Ca_Vβ₂ that distribute over several micrometers along actin filaments in HL-1 cardiomyocytes. Overexpression of Ca_Vβ₂-N3 in HL-1 cells induces an increase in L-type current without altering voltage-dependent activation, thus reflecting an increased number of channels in the plasma membrane. Ca_Vβ mediated L-type up-regulation, and Ca_Vβ-actin association is prevented by disruption of the actin cytoskeleton with cytochalasin D. Our study reveals for the first time an interacting partner of Ca_Vβ that is directly involved in vesicular trafficking. We propose a model in which Ca_Vβ promotes anterograde trafficking of the L-type channels by anchoring them to actin filaments in their itinerary to the plasma membrane.     

Vav1 oncogenic mutation inhibits T cell receptor-induced calcium mobilization through inhibition of phospholipase Cγ1 activation

Robust elevation of the cytosolic calcium concentration is a crucial early step for T cell activation triggered by the T cell antigen receptor. Vav1 is a proto-oncogene expressed in hematopoietic cells that is indispensable for transducing the calcium-mobilizing signal. Following T cell receptor stimulation, Vav1 facilitates formation of signaling microclusters through multiple interactions with other proteins participating in the signaling cascade. Truncation of the N terminus of Vav1 produces its oncogenic version, which is unable to support normal calcium flux following T cell activation. We show here that truncation of the N-terminal region of Vav1 alters the fine structure of protein complexes in the signaling clusters, affecting the interaction of Vav1 with phospholipase Cγ1 (PLCγ1). This alteration is accompanied by a decrease in PLCγ1 phosphorylation and inhibition of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate production. We suggest that the structural integrity of the N-terminal region of Vav1 is important for the proper formation of the Vav1-associated signaling complexes. The oncogenic truncation of this region elicits conformational changes that interfere with the Vav1-mediated activation of PLCγ1 and that inhibit calcium mobilization.     

Loop L5 acts as a conformational latch in the mitotic kinesin Eg5

All members of the kinesin superfamily of molecular motors contain an unusual structural motif consisting of an α-helix that is interrupted by a flexible loop, referred to as L5. We have examined the function of L5 in the mitotic kinesin Eg5 by combining site-directed mutagenesis of L5 with transient state kinetics, molecular dynamics simulations, and docking using cryo electron microscopy density. We find that mutation of a proline residue located at a turn within this loop profoundly slows nucleotide-induced structural changes both at the catalytic site as well as at the microtubule binding domain and the neck linker. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal that this mutation affects the dynamics not only of L5 itself but also of the switch I structural elements that sense ATP binding to the catalytic site. Our results lead us to propose that L5 regulates the rate of conformational change in key elements of the nucleotide binding site through its interactions with α3 and in so doing controls the speed of movement and force generation in kinesin motors.     

Oligomerization and pore formation by equinatoxin II inhibit endocytosis and lead to plasma membrane reorganization

Pore-forming toxins have evolved to induce membrane injury by formation of pores in the target cell that alter ion homeostasis and lead to cell death. Many pore-forming toxins use cholesterol, sphingolipids, or other raft components as receptors. However, the role of plasma membrane organization for toxin action is not well understood. In this study, we have investigated cellular dynamics during the attack of equinatoxin II, a pore-forming toxin from the sea anemone Actinia equina, by combining time lapse three-dimensional live cell imaging, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, FRET, and fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy. Our results show that membrane binding by equinatoxin II is accompanied by extensive plasma membrane reorganization into microscopic domains that resemble coalesced lipid rafts. Pore formation by the toxin induces Ca(2+) entry into the cytosol, which is accompanied by hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, plasma membrane blebbing, actin cytoskeleton reorganization, and inhibition of endocytosis. We propose that plasma membrane reorganization into stabilized raft domains is part of the killing strategy of equinatoxin II.     

Dimerization,Oligomerization, and Aggregation of Human Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Copper/Zinc Superoxide Dismutase 1 Protein Mutant Forms in Live Cells

More than 100 copper/zinc superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) genetic mutations have been characterized. These mutations lead to the death of motor neurons in ALS. In its native form, the SOD1 protein is expressed as a homodimer in the cytosol. In vitro studies have shown that SOD1 mutations impair the dimerization kinetics of the protein, and in vivo studies have shown that SOD1 forms aggregates in patients with familial forms of ALS. In this study, we analyzed WT SOD1 and 9 mutant (mt) forms of the protein by non-invasive fluorescence techniques. Using microscopic techniques such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer, fluorescence complementation, image-based quantification, and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, we studied SOD1 dimerization, oligomerization, and aggregation. Our results indicate that SOD1 mutations lead to an impairment in SOD1 dimerization and, subsequently, affect protein aggregation. We also show that SOD1 WT and mt proteins can dimerize. However, aggregates are predominantly composed of SOD1 mt proteins.     

The Efficacy of Raf Kinase Recruitment to the GTPase H-ras Depends on H-ras Membrane Conformer-specific Nanoclustering

Solution structures and biochemical data have provided a wealth of mechanistic insight into Ras GTPases. However, information on how much the membrane organization of these lipid-modified proteins impacts on their signaling is still scarce. Ras proteins are organized into membrane nanoclusters, which are necessary for Ras-MAPK signaling. Using quantitative conventional and super-resolution fluorescence methods, as well as mathematical modeling, we investigated nanoclustering of H-ras helix α4 and hypervariable region mutants that have different bona fide conformations on the membrane. By following the emergence of conformer-specific nanoclusters in the plasma membrane of mammalian cells, we found that conformers impart distinct nanoclustering responses depending on the cytoplasmic levels of the nanocluster scaffold galectin-1. Computational modeling revealed that complexes containing H-ras conformers and galectin-1 affect both the number and lifetime of nanoclusters and thus determine the specific Raf effector recruitment. Our results show that mutations in Ras can affect its nanoclustering response and thus allosterically effector recruitment and downstream signaling. We postulate that cancer- and developmental disease-linked mutations that are associated with the Ras membrane conformation may exhibit so far unrecognized Ras nanoclustering and therefore signaling alterations.