Influence of separate rearing on adult longevity and fecundity of the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

白蜡窄吉丁Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire是近年来发生和危害严重的国际性检疫害虫.为了了解不同饲养条件和种内个体间相互感知对成虫生物学的影响,本研究采用群体饲养、单对饲养、无隔离单雌饲养、视觉隔离单雌饲养和嗅觉隔离单雌饲养等5种处理,在室内测定了白蜡窄吉丁成虫的寿命、取食量、产卵量和产卵历期等参数的变化.结果显示:隔离饲养降低了白蜡窄吉丁成虫的寿命和繁殖力,且不同处理下白蜡窄吉丁成虫的寿命和取食量均存在显著差异(P＜0.05),但产卵量的差异不明显(P＞0.05).其中无隔离单雌饲养时成虫的平均寿命最长,为32.40 d,群体饲养的寿命最短,为20.77 d,且单雌饲养的寿命均比单对饲养和群体饲养的长.单雌饲养的3种情况下,视觉隔离条件下的日均取食量最大,为156.16 mm2,嗅觉隔离的最小,为107.35 mm2;无隔离饲养条件下雌虫的产卵量最大,产卵历期也最长,分别为98.33 d和21.33 d.这些研究结果表明,白蜡窄吉丁种内个体间相互感知的阻断对成虫的取食、发育和繁殖活动存在明显影响,且嗅觉在其种群内的交流活动中作用最重要,其次是视觉.此外,个体之间的相互干扰或竞争对白蜡窄吉丁成虫的寿命和繁殖力也可能存在一定的影响.这为生产上采用隔离措施如营造混交林带防治该虫提供了理论基础.     

花曲柳窄吉丁的空间分布

2004年4月~9月,在天津市大港区官港森林公园对花曲柳窄吉丁Agrilus planipennis的空间分布和垂直分布进行了调查研究,应用扩散系数(C)等6种指数法分析测定,确定了该虫在林地中的空间分布呈聚集分布,分布的基本成分是个体群。扩散蔓延规律为聚集型扩散。花曲柳窄吉丁幼虫在树干的垂直分布主要区间在50~150 cm之间。对幼虫垂直分布与树干高度的关系进行分析,其符合立方曲线,曲线方程为:Y=-5.142 9+17.943 7X+21.662 3X2-14.545X3;相关系数R2=0.915,P=0.013。     

隔离饲养对白蜡窄吉丁成虫寿命和繁殖力的影响

白蜡窄吉丁Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire是近年来发生和危害严重的国际性检疫害虫。为了了解不同饲养条件和种内个体间相互感知对成虫生物学的影响, 本研究采用群体饲养、 单对饲养、 无隔离单雌饲养、 视觉隔离单雌饲养和嗅觉隔离单雌饲养等5种处理, 在室内测定了白蜡窄吉丁成虫的寿命、 取食量、 产卵量和产卵历期等参数的变化。结果显示： 隔离饲养降低了白蜡窄吉丁成虫的寿命和繁殖力, 且不同处理下白蜡窄吉丁成虫的寿命和取食量均存在显著差异（P<0.05）, 但产卵量的差异不明显（P>0.05）。其中无隔离单雌饲养时成虫的平均寿命最长, 为32.40 d, 群体饲养的寿命最短, 为20.77 d, 且单雌饲养的寿命均比单对饲养和群体饲养的长。单雌饲养的3种情况下, 视觉隔离条件下的日均取食量最大, 为156.16 mm², 嗅觉隔离的最小, 为107.35 mm²; 无隔离饲养条件下雌虫的产卵量最大, 产卵历期也最长, 分别为98.33 d和21.33 d。这些研究结果表明, 白蜡窄吉丁种内个体间相互感知的阻断对成虫的取食、 发育和繁殖活动存在明显影响, 且嗅觉在其种群内的交流活动中作用最重要, 其次是视觉。此外, 个体之间的相互干扰或竞争对白蜡窄吉丁成虫的寿命和繁殖力也可能存在一定的影响。这为生产上采用隔离措施如营造混交林带防治该虫提供了理论基础。     

基于特定时间调查数据组建的白蜡窄吉丁种群生命表

为了探明影响白蜡窄吉丁Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire自然种群变化的关键因子, 本研究于2010-2011年采用当年秋季和翌年春季两个特定时间调查取样的方法, 组建了天津、 北京和辽宁3个地区白蜡窄吉丁的自然种群生命表。结果显示, 这3个地区白蜡窄吉丁的自然种群数量在今后几年均将呈增长趋势, 但不同地区的增长速率存在较大差异。北京地区白蜡窄吉丁的种群数量增长速率最快（种群趋势指数I=12.9997）, 其次是天津地区（I=12.4388）, 这两个地区的寄主植物相同, 均为绒毛白蜡。增长最慢的是辽宁地区（I=3.6394）, 其寄主植物为水曲柳。另外, 通过3个地区白蜡窄吉丁生命表和排除控制指数可以看出, 天津地区白蜡窄吉丁最主要的致死因子是白蜡吉丁柄腹茧蜂Spathius agrili Yang（种群数量排除控制指数EIPC=1.5382）, 对种群数量变动的贡献最大; 北京地区的是啄木鸟（EIPC=1.4515）, 而辽宁地区白蜡窄吉丁最主要的致死因子是白蜡吉丁卵跳小蜂Oobius agrili Zhang et Huang的寄生作用（EIPC=1.4701）。这些研究结果表明, 寄主植物的差异是影响白蜡窄吉丁自然种群数量变动的主要因素, 同时寄生性天敌白蜡吉丁柄腹茧蜂对种群数量的影响作用也比较大。因此, 实际应用中可以通过培育抗性树种和人工繁育优势天敌等方法对该虫进行有效防治。     

Host range of the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) in North America: results of multiple-choice field experiments

Emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), an invasive phloem-feeding pest, was identified as the cause of widespread ash (Fraxinus) mortality in southeast Michigan and Windsor, Ontario, Canada, in 2002. A. planipennis reportedly colonizes other genera in its native range in Asia, including Ulmus L., Juglans L., and Pterocarya Kunth. Attacks on nonash species have not been observed in North America to date, but there is concern that other genera could be colonized. From 2003 to 2005, we assessed adult A. planipennis landing rates, oviposition, and larval development on North American ash species and congeners of its reported hosts in Asia in multiple-choice field studies conducted at several southeast Michigan sites. Nonash species evaluated included American elm (U. americana L.), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis L.), black walnut (J. nigra L.), shagbark hickory [Carya ovata (Mill.) K.Koch], and Japanese tree lilac (Syringa reticulata Bl.). In studies with freshly cut logs, adult beetles occasionally landed on nonash logs but generally laid fewer eggs than on ash logs. Larvae fed and developed normally on ash logs, which were often heavily infested. No larvae were able to survive, grow, or develop on any nonash logs, although failed first-instar galleries occurred on some walnut logs. High densities of larvae developed on live green ash and white ash nursery trees, but there was no evidence of larval survival or development on Japanese tree lilac and black walnut trees in the same plantation. We felled, debarked, and intensively examined >28 m2 of phloem area on nine American elm trees growing in contact with or adjacent to heavily infested ash trees. We found no sign of A. planipennis feeding on any elm.     

Evaluation of double-decker traps for emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Improved detection tools are needed for the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), an invasive forest insect from Asia that has killed millions of ash (Fraxinus spp.) trees in North America since its discovery in Michigan in 2002. We evaluated attraction of adult A. planipennis to artificial traps incorporating visual (e.g., height, color, silhouette) and olfactory cues (e.g., host volatiles) at field sites in Michigan. We developed a double-decker trap consisting of a 3-m-tall polyvinyl pipe with two purple prisms attached near the top. In 2006, we compared A. planipennis attraction to double-decker traps baited with various combinations of manuka oil (containing sesquiterpenes present in ash bark), a blend of four ash leaf volatiles (leaf blend), and a rough texture to simulate bark. Significantly more A. planipennis were captured per trap when traps without the rough texture were baited with the leaf blend and manuka oil lures than on traps with texture and manuka oil but no leaf blend. In 2007, we also tested single prism traps set 1.5 m above ground and tower traps, similar to double-decker traps but 6 m tall. Double-decker traps baited with the leaf blend and manuka oil, with or without the addition of ash leaf and bark extracts, captured significantly more A. planipennis than similarly baited single prism traps, tower traps, or unbaited double-decker traps. A baited double-decker trap captured A. planipennis at a field site that was not previously known to be infested, representing the first detection event using artificial traps and lures. In 2008, we compared purple or green double-decker traps, single prisms suspended 3-5 m above ground in the ash canopy (canopy traps), and large flat purple traps (billboard traps). Significantly more A. planipennis were captured in purple versus green traps, baited traps versus unbaited traps, and double-decker versus canopy traps, whereas billboard traps were intermediate. At sites with very low A. planipennis densities, more A. planipennis were captured on baited double-decker traps than on other traps and a higher percentage of the baited double-decker traps captured beetles than any other trap design. In all 3 yr, peak A. planipennis activity occurred during late June to mid-July, corresponding to 800-1200 growing degree-days base 10 degrees C (DD10). Nearly all (95%) beetles were captured by the end of July at approximately 1400 DD10.     

Modelling local and long-distance dispersal of invasive emerald ash borer Agrilus planipennis (Coleoptera) in North America

Limiting the damage by non-indigenous species requires rapid determination of current and potential distributions and vectors of dispersal, and development of appropriate management measures. The emerald ash borer ( Agrilus planipennis ), a wood-boring beetle native to South-East Asia, was first reported in the Great Lakes region during summer 2002. The beetle poses an enormous threat to native ash ( Fraxinus ) species of North America, as untreated trees in infested areas of Ontario, Michigan and Ohio suffer high mortality. We demonstrate that the borer has spread in North America through a combination of diffusive range extension, associated with local flights, and by long-distance 'jump' dispersal associated with human movement of infested sapling or contaminated firewood. Probability of infestation was inversely related to distance from borer epicentres but positively related to the size of human population centres. At least 9 of 39 populations that were first reported in Michigan during 2004 cannot be accounted for by local diffusion, raising the possibility that other unidentified mechanisms may be contributing to the dispersal of the beetle. In the absence of quarantine, by 2005 all of Michigan's lower peninsula was contained within the boundaries of potential diffusive range expansion. Infested ash saplings also were introduced from Michigan to Maryland during 2003, and subsequently transplanted to five sites in Maryland and Virginia. Quarantine and eradication measures have had mixed results: in the south-central USA, the species appears on the brink of eradication, whereas its distribution has continued to spread during 2005 in the Great Lakes region despite extensive containment and quarantine measures. Quarantine success in the Great Lakes region is encumbered by multiple dispersal vectors, larger borer population sizes and by the more extensive geographical distribution that was achieved prior to implementation of control measures.     

Effects of chipping, grinding, and heat on survival of emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), in chips

The emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), a phloem-feeding insect from Asia, was identified in 2002 as the cause of widespread ash (Fraxinus sp.) mortality in southeastern Michigan and Essex County, Ontario. Most larvae overwinter as nonfeeding prepupae in the outer sapwood or thick bark of large trees. In a series of studies, we evaluated effects of grinding, chipping, and heat treatment on survival of A. planipennis prepupae in ash material. Heavily infested ash bolts containing roughly 8,700 prepupae were processed by a horizontal grinder with either a 2.5- or 10-cm screen. There was no evidence of A. planipennis survival in chips processed with the 2.5-cm screen, but eight viable prepupae were recovered from chips processed with the 10-cm screen. We chiseled additional sentinel chips with prepupae from ash logs and buried 45 in each chip pile. In total, six prepupae in sentinel chips survived the winter, but we found no sign of adult A. planipennis emergence from the processed chips. Subsequently, we assessed prepupal survival in chips processed by a chipper or a horizontal grinder fit with 5-, 10-, or 12.7-cm screens. An estimated 1,565 A. planipennis prepupae were processed by each treatment. Chips from the chipper were shorter than chips from the grinder regardless of the screen size used. No live prepupae were found in chips produced by the chipper, but 21 viable prepupae were found in chips from the grinder. Infested wood and bark chips chiseled from logs were held in ovens at 25, 40, or 60 degrees C for 8, 24, or 48 h. Prepupal survival was consistently higher in wood chips than bark chips at 40 degrees C, whereas no prepupae survived exposure to 60 degrees C for eight or more hours. In a second study, prepupae in wood chips were exposed to 40, 45, 50, 55, or 60 degrees C for 20 or 120 min. Some prepupae survived 20 min of exposure to all temperatures. No prepupae survived exposure to 60 degrees C for 120 min, but 17% survived exposure to 55 degrees C for 120 min, suggesting that some fraction of the population may survive internationally recognized phytosanitary standards (ISPM-15) for treatment of wood packing material.     

Economic analysis of emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) management options

Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis (Fairmaire) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), plays a significant role in the health and extent of management of native North American ash species in urban forests. An economic analysis of management options was performed to aid decision makers in preparing for likely future infestations. Separate ash tree population valuations were derived from the i-Tree Streets program and the Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers (CTLA) methodology. A relative economic analysis was used to compare a control option (do-nothing approach, only removing ash trees as they die) to three distinct management options: 1) preemptive removal of all ash trees over a 5 yr period, 2) preemptive removal of all ash trees and replacement with comparable nonash trees, or 3) treating the entire population of ash trees with insecticides to minimize mortality. For each valuation and management option, an annual analysis was performed for both the remaining ash tree population and those lost to emerald ash borer. Retention of ash trees using insecticide treatments typically retained greater urban forest value, followed by doing nothing (control), which was better than preemptive removal and replacement. Preemptive removal without tree replacement, which was the least expensive management option, also provided the lowest net urban forest value over the 20-yr simulation. A "no emerald ash borer" scenario was modeled to further serve as a benchmark for each management option and provide a level of economic justification for regulatory programs aimed at slowing the movement of emerald ash borer.     

白蜡窄吉丁虫在中国的研究现状与分布调查

2002年在美国密执安州发现了一重大外来入侵害虫,白蜡窄吉丁Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, 由于该虫新近在美国发现,危害白蜡树,故英文名称为Emerald Ash Borer (EAB)。初步分析显示,该虫至少在5年前就已传入美国,只是现在刚爆发被发现。目前该虫在美国密执安州和加拿大安大略省可致死各种大小的白蜡树。该虫在我国曾被定名为花曲柳窄吉丁Agrilus marcopoli Obenberger,为鞘翅目吉丁科。据资料报道分布于黑龙江、吉林、辽宁、山东、内蒙古和台湾等地;在国外分布于朝鲜,日本,蒙古,俄罗斯远东地区。危害木樨科属树木。两年一代或一年一代,因地而已。在东北三省主要危害水曲柳和花曲柳等树木,但不是主要害虫。天津市1993年在引种白蜡树上发现了白蜡窄吉丁,1998年严重爆发造成大面积白蜡树死亡。在亚洲的其他分布区,该虫还危害另外一些阔叶树,如多种蜡树、榆树等。鉴于该虫的广泛分布和寄主树种多及毁灭性危害的特点,美国一些专家认为其潜在危害不亚于1996年在美国发现的光肩星天牛。因此,美国已全面开展对该虫的研究,包括资料收集,风险性评估,研究各种控制措施等。 本文是中美对此虫合作研究的一部分,旨在对该虫在我国的分布、 危害、 研究基础作一调查与回顾, 为下一步深入研究提供信息与参考资料。白蜡窄吉丁入侵北美再一次显示随着贸易的全球化发展, 外来入侵种问题也越来越严重。国际合作共同开展研究是控制入侵种的重要举措之一。     

Biology and damage traits of emerald ash borer planipennis Fairmaire）in China

Emerald ash borer （Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire） （Coleoptera： Buprestidae） is a major stem borer of ash （Fraxinus spp.）. It is univoltine in Tianjin, while it is semivoltine in Heilongjiang Province, and both univoltine and semivoltine in Changchun, Jilin Province, where the majority is univoltine. The longevity of emerald ash borer adults is 17.2 ± 4.6 days （n = 45）, eggs 9.0 5：1.1 days （n = 103）, univoltine larvae 308 days, semivoltine larvae 673 days, and pupae 61.2 ± 1.6 days （n = 45）. It takes about 100 days from the time larvae bore into the phloem to when they complete the pupal cell. In a 10-year-old velvet ash （Fraxinus velutina Tort.） plantation in Tianjin, emerald ash borer preferred to oviposit on the regions of boles from 50-150 cm above ground, accounting for 76.7% of the total girdling. Girdling on the south side of the tree boles accounted for 43.40% of the total girdling. The emerald ash borer population density is higher at the edge of the plantation compared with the center.     

Estimating potential emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) populations using ash inventory data

Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), a phloem-feeding pest native to Asia, was identified in June 2002 as the cause of widespread ash (Fraxinus spp.), mortality in southeastern Michigan and Windsor, Ontario, Canada. Localized populations of A. planipennis have since been found across lower Michigan and in areas of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Maryland, and Ontario. Officials working to contain A. planipennis and managers of forestlands near A. planipennis infestations must be able to compare alternative strategies to allocate limited funds efficiently and effectively. Empirical data from a total of 148 green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh., and white ash, Fraxinus americana L., trees were used to develop models to estimate surface area of the trunk and branches by using tree diameter at breast height (dbh). Data collected from 71 additional F. pennsylvanica and F. americana trees killed by A. planipennis showed that on average, 88.9 +/- 4.6 beetles developed and emerged per m2 of surface area. Models were applied to ash inventory data collected at two outlier sites to estimate potential production of A. planipennis beetles at each site. Large trees of merchantable size (dbh > or = 26 cm) accounted for roughly 6% of all ash trees at the two sites, but they could have contributed 55-65% of the total A. planipennis production at both sites. In contrast, 75- 80% of the ash trees at the outlier sites were < or =13 cm dbh, but these small trees could have contributed only < or =12% of the potential A. planipennis production at both sites. Our results, in combination with inventory data, can be used by regulatory officials and resource managers to estimate potential A. planipennis production and to compare options for reducing A. planipennis density and slowing the rate of spread for any area of interest.     

Low-temperature methyl bromide fumigation of emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) in ash logs

Ash (Fraxinus spp.) logs, infested with fully developed, cold-acclimated larval and prepupal emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), were fumigated with methyl bromide (MeBr) at 4.4 and 10.0 degrees C for 24 h. Concentrations X time dosages of MeBr obtained were 1579 and 1273 g-h/m3 (24-h exposure) at 4.4 and 10.0 degrees C after applied doses of 112 and 96 g/m3, respectively. MeBr concentrations were simultaneously measured with a ContainIR infrared monitor and Fumiscope thermal conductivity meter calibrated for MeBr to measure the effect of CO2 on Fumiscope concentration readings compared with the infrared (IR) instrument. The presence of CO2 caused false high MeBr readings. With the thermal conductivity meter, CO2 measured 11.36 g/m3 MeBr per 1% CO2 in clean air, whereas the gas-specific infrared ContainIR instrument measured 9.55% CO2 as 4.2 g/m3 MeBr (0.44 g/m3 per 1% CO2). The IR instrument was 0.4% as sensitive to CO2 as the thermal conductivity meter. After aeration, fumigated and control logs were held for 8 wk to capture emerging beetles. No A. planipennis adults emerged from any of the fumigated logs, whereas 262 emerged from control logs (139 and 123/m2 at 4.4 and 10.0 degrees C, respectively). An effective fumigation dose and minimum periodic MeBr concentrations are proposed. The use of a CO2 scrubber in conjunction with nonspecific thermal conductivity instruments is necessary to more accurately measure MeBr concentrations.     

Novel visual-cue-based sticky traps for monitoring of emerald ash borers, Agrilus planipennis (Col., Buprestidae)

We examined various methods of trapping emerald ash borers (EAB), Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, using solely visual cues based on previous work that has documented the importance of visual cues in EAB mate location. Here, we give the results of two of these methods, coloured sticky cards (yellow or blue), or live ash leaves covered with spray-on adhesive to which dead male EAB visual lures had been pinned. Feral male beetles were captured effectively on the sticky traps made from dead male EAB on ash leaves. These sticky-leaf-traps captured more male EAB when deployed in high-population density areas than low-density areas, but did capture EAB even at lower population densities. More feral males were captured on these traps when they were placed higher in the trees, regardless of the population density of EAB. Very few feral female EAB were captured using the sticky-leaf-traps. This novel method of EAB trapping may allow 'real-time' population detection and monitoring of EAB adults during the active flight period rather than locating larval galleries during the autumn and winter after adult flight and attack. Feral male beetles were also captured using standard yellow- or blue-coloured sticky cards to which male EAB had been affixed with adhesive; however, this type of trap was much less effective overall than using the sticky-leaf-traps. Furthermore, Agrilus cyanescens , a species similar in colour to EAB but smaller in size, showed a strong response to blue-coloured sticky traps to which dead male EAB had been affixed with adhesive, suggesting a general use of visual cues in the mating systems of some of the other Buprestidae as well.     

中国白蜡窄吉丁研究进展

白蜡窄吉丁Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire是近年来发生和影响比较严重的国际性检疫害虫,主要危害白蜡属(Fraxinus spp.)树木。它以幼虫在树木的韧皮部、形成层和木质部浅层蛀食,从而切断树木的营养输导组织,导致树木衰弱死亡。为了深入了解该害虫,探索合理的治理策略,本文对国内外有关白蜡窄吉丁的生物学特性,包括生活习性、生活史、分布与危害、寄主范围等方面以及防治技术的研究进展进行了系统总结,并讨论了白蜡窄吉丁今后的研究方向和研究趋势。     

High temperature tolerance and thermal plasticity in emerald ash borer Agrilus planipennis

• 1 The emerald ash borer Agrilus planipennis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) (EAB), an invasive wood‐boring beetle, has recently caused significant losses of native ash (Fraxinus spp.) trees in North America. Movement of wood products has facilitated EAB spread, and heat sanitation of wooden materials according to International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures No. 15 (ISPM 15) is used to prevent this.
• 2 In the present study, we assessed the thermal conditions experienced during a typical heat‐treatment at a facility using protocols for pallet wood treatment under policy PI‐07, as implemented in Canada. The basal high temperature tolerance of EAB larvae and pupae was determined, and the observed heating rates were used to investigate whether the heat shock response and expression of heat shock proteins occurred in fourth‐instar larvae.
• 3 The temperature regime during heat treatment greatly exceeded the ISPM 15 requirements of 56 °C for 30 min. Emerald ash borer larvae were highly tolerant of elevated temperatures, with some instars surviving exposure to 53 °C without any heat pre‐treatments. High temperature survival was increased by either slow warming or pre‐exposure to elevated temperatures and a recovery regime that was accompanied by up‐regulated hsp70 expression under some of these conditions.
• 4 Because EAB is highly heat tolerant and exhibits a fully functional heat shock response, we conclude that greater survival than measured in vitro is possible under industry treatment conditions (with the larvae still embedded in the wood). We propose that the phenotypic plasticity of EAB may lead to high temperature tolerance very close to conditions experienced in an ISPM 15 standard treatment.