Behavioral management at the Phoenix Zoo: new strategies and perspectives

It all started with a seemingly simple decision to re-evaluate and document the Phoenix Zoo's behavioral management protocol. The purpose of this project was to present proactive standards for the care and psychological well-being of our living collection, while meeting or exceeding the guidelines of the Animal Welfare Act (U. S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health and Inspection Service, Animal Care, 1999). Preparing the protocol was a catalyst to re-evaluate the zoo's philosophy and application of behavioral management. It suggested a restructuring of collection management and the rethinking of future goals and practices. Gradually, the process became more focused and organized. Behavioral enrichment, training, animal behavior issues, and exhibit architecture were embraced as essential components for providing quality of life. Staff from all levels worked side-by-side on assignments. Our way of thinking and working was changing.     

A cross-sectional study of umbilical cord blood donor profiles and their influence on umbilical cord blood collection in a Brazilian hospital

Background aimsUmbilical cord blood (UCB) cells are a new alternative to bone marrow source for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and their use has increased in the last decade. Thus efforts are being made to improve the umbilical cord blood unit's quality. Besides compatibility, other factors, such as the total nucleated cell (TNC) count and the percentage of CD34⁺ cells in the product, are very important for a successful transplant outcome. Our aim was to describe our donor population and assess the best cord blood collection technique at Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein's cord blood bank (São Paulo, Brazil).MethodsThis was a retrospective study in which all analyses were performed simultaneously. A Student's t-test was used for qualitative variables for non-matched samples. For qualitative analyses, we used either the chi-square test or the exact Fisher's test.ResultsThe stratification of the population characteristics allowed us to determine which ones had an impact on unit volume, TNC count and percentage of CD34⁺ cells. A significant correlation was observed between donor characteristics and the quality of UCB units as related to maternal and gestational age, type of pregnancy, route of delivery, cord blood collection technique and birth weight.ConclusionsWe found that cord blood collection technique and newborn weight were significantly correlated with the TNC content. The collection technique used at our institution significantly improved the UCB unit volume and consequently the TNC count. Some findings, such as the impact of maternal age and newborn weight, have led us to re-evaluate our protocol in order to achieve better results.     

A system for monitoring and improving animal visibility and its implications for zoological parks

With the growing trend in zoos to build complex, naturalistic exhibits comes the potential for exhibits to be so densely vegetated or complex that animals are not easily seen by zoo visitors. This can negatively impact the visitor's visiting experience and the zoo's ability to communicate conservation and education messages. Over the past 9 years, Disney's Animal Kingdom^® has developed a process for monitoring and improving the visibility of animals on display to the public. This animal visibility process utilizes a data collection system whereby systematic observations are collected each week. The percentage of observations where at least one animal was visible is recorded for each species and compared to an 80% visibility criterion. Species that do not reach this criterion for 4 consecutive weeks are discussed at animal management meetings. If the problems associated with animal visibility cannot be easily solved, the animal‐care teams partner with the research team to conduct a second process, called the Visibility Issues Process. This process provides additional information for the animal‐care team to utilize in developing a plan to improve visibility. Although the processes described here are specific to the infrastructure at Disney's Animal Kingdom^®, the basic concepts of (1) a formalized visibility data collection process, (2) a visibility criterion to which managers of species are held accountable, and (3) a process for planning to improve animal visibility without negatively impacting animal welfare are fundamental concepts that can be developed at individual institutions and incorporated into that zoo's existing infrastructure. Zoo Biol 29:68–79, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Developing a protocol for managing the biophysical condition of a water management area: the Sabie catchment case study

Recent modification of the South African Water Law spells out fundamental changes for the way the country's water resources will be managed in the future. One of the most significant mandates is the establishment of Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs) and the delegation of water resource management responsibilities to these institutions. Their function will focus on the overall management of water resources on a catchment basis. Within the context of the new legal framework, there is a great need for support to CMAs, particularly in providing them with procedures for the optimal management of water resources in order to ensure a balance between sustainable use and protection of the resource. This paper describes a research project that aims to develop a protocol for the integrated management of the biophysical component of a catchment, with particular focus on river systems. This protocol will be a management tool for Catchment Management Agencies in support of more integrated and sustainable water resource management.

South Africa's Sabie-Sand catchment was selected as a case study area for several reasons. This catchment has a large number of current and historic water resource related initiatives, such as the Working for Water Programme (alien plant clearing), the River Health Programme (river quality assessment) and The Kruger National Park Rivers Research Programme (a river management programme). In addition the diversity of stakeholders and land-use issues in the catchment and the extensive collection of available information relating to water use and protection for this catchment makes the Sabie-Sand a rich learning ground.

This project aims to use information from the Sabie catchment to produce and implement a protocol which will combine and integrate the knowledge of water resource management from diverse but related fields in order to enhance catchment-based integrated water resource management. It also aims to extract and document lessons from current research initiatives, to assess the usefulness and relevance of their products for CMAs and to identify gaps in the research framework that need to be addressed in order to meet the water resource management needs of CMAs. This paper reports on the project development during its first phase, describes the next steps in the research process and provides a conceptual framework of how the research team envisages the practical implementation of the protocol.     

Survey of environmental enhancement programs for laboratory primates

Animal welfare regulations in the United States require that nonhuman primate environmental enhancement plans be made in accordance with currently accepted professional standards; however, little information is available for quantifying common practice. Here we report the results of a 2003 survey that was sent to individuals overseeing enrichment programs at a variety of primate research institutions. The surveys requested information on program administration and management, implementation standards, procedures, and constraints pertaining to major categories of environmental enrichment, as well as intervention plans for animals exhibiting behavioral pathologies. Data were obtained on the management of 35,863 primates in 22 facilities. Behavioral scientists performed program oversight at the majority of facilities. Most programs reported recent changes, most commonly due to external site visits, and least commonly resulting from internal review. Most facilities' institutional animal care and use committees (IACUCs) included of individuals with behavioral expertise, and about two-thirds reported that enrichment issues could influence research protocol design. While most primates were reported to be housed socially (73%), social housing for indoor-housed primates appears to have changed little over the past 10 years. Research protocol issues and social incompatibility were commonly cited constraints. Implementation of feeding, manipulanda, and structural enrichment was relatively unconstrained, and contributions to these aspects of behavioral management generally included individuals in a wide variety of positions within a facility. In contrast, enrichment devices were used on a less widespread basis within facilities, and positive reinforcement programs that involved dedicated trainers were rare. We suggest that altering the role of the IACUC would be a productive avenue for increasing the implementation of social housing, and that an emphasis on prevention rather than intervention against behavioral pathology is warranted. The data from this survey may be useful for anticipating future program evaluations, establishing more effective internal evaluations, and assessing program progress and resource allocation.     

Rating vs. coding in animal personality research

Animal personality research has become increasingly popular over the past few decades. The two main methods used to examine individual differences in animals are rating and coding. The rating method involves human scoring of an animal's behavioral tendencies along various behavioral dimensions, such ratings are typically based on the human rater's experience with the animal. The coding method also requires humans to score an animal's behavior, but differs in that the scoring is based on the animal's immediate behavior in a specific context. This brief report describes the use of both the rating and coding methods to examine personality within a group of 10 Garnett's bushbabies (Otolemur garnettii). The results indicated that individual personalities do exist in bushbabies, but also suggested that the rating method is heavily influenced by the rater's experience with an animal. Consequently, it is important that the nature of the rater's interactions with the target animals be considered when using the rating method to assess animal personality. Zoo Biol 29:509–516, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Using training to moderate chimpanzee aggression during feeding

The effects of human and nonhuman primate interactions on the well-being of captive nonhuman primates have been studied less rigorously than other forms of environmental improvement. Human intervention might be used to moderate severe aggression of socially housed animals at feeding times, one of the most common behavioral management problems. In this study, positive reinforcement training techniques were applied to reduce a dominant male chimpanzee's aggression and chasing during meals. Verbal commands and food reinforcers were used to train him to sit and remain seated while other group members received and ate their share of produce. Observational data were collected recording all instances of agonism in the group during periods when meals were fed and during times when no meals were offered, both before and after the training was accomplished. Multivariate analysis of variance for repeated measures results indicated that the training program successfully reduced the group's incidence of displaying, submission, and aggression during feeding periods. This effect was specific to the times meals were fed; there was no generalized reduction in the group's agonism after the training. This study exemplifies the use of positive reinforcement techniques to modify chimpanzee social dynamics during a problematic situation and of observational data to evaluate quantitatively the behavioral effects of the training. Training can be employed to help solve behavioral management problems among socially housed animals, and it can help improve the psychological well-being of captive chimpanzees. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Training Large Macaws for Artificial Insemination Procedures

For some endangered parrot species, captive breeding may be the only insurance for their survival. However, many individuals in captivity do not reproduce. Artificial insemination (AI) may help overcome reproductive failures or geographic distance. For semen collection in birds, massage is the most commonly used method. However, this process, which usually requires capture and restraint, involves risk of stress and injuries. The aim of this experiment was to train large macaws to accept the physical manipulations of their body parts needed for the artificial insemination process. Within 15 weeks, a male and a female Buffon's macaw (Ara ambiguus) learned to accept handling without apparent stress. A pair of green-winged macaws (Ara chloropterus) progressed more slowly and displayed some signs of stress. This stress highlights the need to monitor the birds' possible signs of discomfort during the training in order to adapt the working protocol. These results demonstrate that it is possible to train the AI behaviors, thus avoiding the capture, restraint, and anesthesia. An added benefit to this is the potential for the training to provide a form of behavioral enrichment.     

How Physicians Can Improve Patients' Participation and Maintenance in Self-Care

A protocol for the stepped education and support of patients is derived from the cumulative experience of more than 200 clinical trials of patient education and behavioral change interventions. The recommended procedure entails assessing a patient''s educational needs by asking a sequence of “diagnostic” questions to assure patient motivation, skill and resources and to reinforce adherence to the prescribed medical regimen or life-style modifications. The sequence of questions and interventions is also designed to minimize a physician''s time commitment and to maximize the medical benefit to the patient.     

Hand-Rearing and Sex Determination Tool for the Taveta Golden Weaver (Ploceus castaneiceps)

Improvements in the ability to hand‐rear birds in captivity have aided zoological institutions in the sustainable management of these species, and have provided opportunities to examine their physical growth in varying conditions. Monitoring the weight gain and development of chicks is an important aspect of developing a hand‐rearing protocol. In this paper we provide the institutional history for a colonial species of passerine, the Taveta golden weaver, at Disney's Animal Kingdom®, in order to demonstrate the methods of establishing a successful breeding program which largely incorporates hand‐rearing in management of the population. We also tested if we could accurately predict sex of chicks using weights collected on Day 14 during the hand‐rearing process. Using this tool, we were able to correctly determine sex before fledging in more than 83% of chicks. Early sex determination is important in captive species for genetic management and husbandry purposes. While genetic sexing can be expensive, we found that using growth curves to determine sex can be a reliable and cost‐effective tool for population management of a colonial passerine. Zoo Biol. 31:600‐608, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Accurate and Phenol Free DNA Sexing of Day 30 Porcine Embryos by PCR

Research into prenatal programming in the pig has shown that the sex of the developing embryo or fetus can influence the developmental outcome. Therefore, the ability to determine an embryo''s sex is necessary in many experiments particularly regarding early development. The present protocol demonstrates an inexpensive, rapid and non-toxic preparation of pig genomic DNA for use with PCR. Day 30 embryos must be humanely collected according to the guidelines established by Institutional Animal Policy and Welfare Committees for the present protocol. The preparation of the whole embryo for this PCR based sexing technique simply involves grinding the frozen embryo to a fine powder using a pre-chilled mortar and pestle. PCR-quality DNA is released from a small amount of embryo powder by applying a hot incubation in an alkaline lysis reagent. Next, the DNA solution is mixed with neutralization buffer and used directly for PCR. Two primer pairs are generated to detect specific sex determining region of the Y- chromosome (SRY) and ZFX region of the X- chromosome with high accuracy and specificity. The same protocol can be applied to other elongated embryos (Day 10 to Day 14) earlier than Day 30. Also, this protocol can be carried with 96-welled plates when screening a large number of embryos, making it feasible for automation and high-throughput sex typing.     

Development of an Alpha-synuclein Based Rat Model for Parkinson's Disease via Stereotactic Injection of a Recombinant Adeno-associated Viral Vector

In order to study the molecular pathways of Parkinson''s disease (PD) and to develop novel therapeutic strategies, scientific investigators rely on animal models. The identification of PD-associated genes has led to the development of genetic PD models. Most transgenic α-SYN mouse models develop gradual α-SYN pathology but fail to display clear dopaminergic cell loss and dopamine-dependent behavioral deficits. This hurdle was overcome by direct targeting of the substantia nigra with viral vectors overexpressing PD-associated genes. Local gene delivery using viral vectors provides an attractive way to express transgenes in the central nervous system. Specific brain regions can be targeted (e.g. the substantia nigra), expression can be induced in the adult setting and high expression levels can be achieved. Further, different vector systems based on various viruses can be used. The protocol outlines all crucial steps to perform a viral vector injection in the substantia nigra of the rat to develop a viral vector-based alpha-synuclein animal model for Parkinson''s disease.     

A Shortened Barnes Maze Protocol Reveals Memory Deficits at 4-Months of Age in the Triple-Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer''s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that manifests as memory loss, cognitive dysfunction, and dementia. Animal models of Alzheimer''s disease have been instrumental in understanding the underlying pathological mechanism and in evaluation of potential therapies. The triple transgenic (3×Tg) mouse model of AD is unique because it recapitulates both pathologic hallmarks of Alzheimer''s disease - amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. The earliest cognitive deficits in this model have been shown at 6-m of age by most groups, necessitating aging of the mice to this age before initiating evaluation of the cognitive effects of therapies. To assess cognitive deficits in the 3×Tg mice, originally we employed a typical Barnes maze protocol of 15 training trials, but found no significant deficits in aged mice. Therefore, we shortened the protocol to include only 5 training trials to increase difficulty. We found cognitive deficits using this protocol using mainly measures from the probe day, rather than the training trials. This also decreased the effort involved with data analysis. We compared 3×Tg and wild-type mice at 4-m- and 15-m of age using both the original, long training, and the short training paradigms. We found that differences in learning between 3×Tg and wild-type mice disappeared after the 4^th training trial. Measures of learning and memory on the probe day showed significant differences between 3×Tg and wild-type mice following the short, 5-training trial protocol but not the long, 15-training trial protocol. Importantly, we detected cognitive dysfunction already at 4-m of age in 3×Tg mice using the short Barnes-maze protocol. The ability to test learning and memory in 4-m old 3×Tg mice using a shortened Barnes maze protocol offers considerable time and cost savings and provides support for the utilization of this model at pre-pathology stages for therapeutic studies.     

An investigation into the determining factors of zoo visitor attendances in UK zoos

The debate as to which animals are most beneficial to keep in zoos in terms of financial and conservative value is readily disputed; however, demographic factors have also been shown to relate to visitor numbers on an international level. The main aims of this research were: (1) To observe the distribution and location of zoos across the UK, (2) to develop a way of calculating zoo popularity in terms of the species kept within a collection and (3) to investigate the factors related to visitor numbers regarding admission costs, popularity of the collection in terms of the species kept and local demographic factors. Zoo visitor numbers were positively correlated with generated popularity ratings for zoos based on the species kept within a collection and admission prices (Pearson correlation: n = 34, r = 0.268, P = 0.126 and n = 34, r = −0.430, P = 0.011). Animal collections are aggregated around large cities and tourist regions, particularly coastal areas. No relationship between demographic variables and visitor numbers was found (Pearson correlation: n = 34, r = 0.268, P = 0.126), which suggests that the popularity of a zoo''s collection relative to the types and numbers of species kept is more indicative of a collection''s visitor numbers than its surrounding demographic figures. Zoos should incorporate generating high popularity scores as part of their collection planning strategies, to ensure that they thrive in the future, not only as tourist attractions but also as major conservation organizations.     

Abstracts

Abstract

Exposure to pets and wildlife can help children develop positive attitudes toward animals, which can foster the development of empathy and ecological stewardship. However, geographical, logistical and economic restrictions limit opportunities for many youth to interact directly with live animals. Thus, educational interventions that utilize imitation animal artifacts rather than live animals, and which are effective in helping children develop an understanding of animals, present an important resource for educators. In the current study, the impact of a curriculum that employs imitation animal artifacts on children's perceptions of their relationships to animals was assessed. Third grade children's (n = 96) perceptions of their relationships to animals were analyzed by means of a drawing assessment tool. An analytic scoring rubric was used to assess three features of the drawings: Interactivity, Affect, and Realism. The combination of these elements was defined as the construct Self–Animal Perception. Change in Self–Animal Perception was assessed over time using repeated measures ANOVA. The curriculum intervention resulted in significant improvement in Self–Animal Perception scores relative to controls. The Self–Animal Perception construct and the drawing assessment tool utilized for measuring children's perceived relationships to animals are discussed.     

An unethical trial and the politicization of the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil: The case of Prevent Senior

The Brazilian Federal Senate created a Parliamentary Inquiry Commission (CPI) to investigate the Bolsonaro government's irregularities in the management of the COVID-19 pandemic. One of the cases that drew attention was the research conducted by Prevent Senior, a private health insurance company, on the early treatment of COVID-19. The article analyzes the scientific validity of the research and the ethical problems related to its implementation. It is based on analysis of Prevent Senior's report of the clinical study, the Brazilian and USA clinical trial registries, the Senate's CPI report, and on the information reported by the media. This case of scientific fraud and political-ideological bias exemplifies how Prevent Senior, using a questionable protocol to enhance its reputation and gain government support, was instrumental in building the “early treatment” narrative for COVID-19, and shows how it served as a basis for a government public policy that promoted the use of ineffective drugs.     

Systematic Investigation of the Stability of Food Preferences in Captive Orangutans: Implications for Positive Reinforcement Training

Using preference-assessment tests with humans in conjunction with behavioral modification sessions has been a regular component of almost all operant conditioning programs with mentally challenged humans. This has been very effective in improving the efficiency of behavioral training in these settings and could be similarly effective in zoological and research environments. This study investigated the preferences of 9 captive orangutans for different food items. The study used a pairwise presentation to record each nonhuman animal's preferences for 5 different foods on 6 different occasions over the course of 6 months. Results of a Friedman's 2-way ANOVA indicated that the orangutans showed a clear overall preference for apple. However, there was significant variability among different orangutans in preference ranking for the 5 foods, as shown by a Kendall's tau. In addition, there was variability in preference rankings across time for each orangutan. Because the orangutans' preferences change over time and vary according to individual, regular assessments should identify items to be used as rewards in behavioral husbandry training or as part of feeding enrichment strategies.     

Exploring the Relation of Harsh Parental Discipline with Child Emotional and Behavioral Problems by Using Multiple Informants. The Generation R Study

Parental harsh disciplining, like corporal punishment, has consistently been associated with adverse mental health outcomes in children. It remains a challenge to accurately assess the consequences of harsh discipline, as researchers and clinicians generally rely on parent report of young children''s problem behaviors. If parents rate their parenting styles and their child''s behavior this may bias results. The use of child self-report on problem behaviors is not common but may provide extra information about the relation of harsh parental discipline and problem behavior. We examined the independent contribution of young children''s self-report above parental report of emotional and behavioral problems in a study of maternal and paternal harsh discipline in a birth cohort. Maternal and paternal harsh discipline predicted both parent reported behavioral and parent reported emotional problems, but only child reported behavioral problems. Associations were not explained by pre-existing behavioral problems at age 3. Importantly, the association with child reported outcomes was independent from parent reported problem behavior. These results suggest that young children''s self-reports of behavioral problems provide unique information on the effects of harsh parental discipline. Inclusion of child self-reports can therefore help estimate the effects of harsh parental discipline more accurately.     

A mixed methods inquiry: How dairy farmers perceive the value(s) of their involvement in an intensive dairy herd health management program

Background

Research has been scarce when it comes to the motivational and behavioral sides of farmers' expectations related to dairy herd health management programs. The objectives of this study were to explore farmers' expectations related to participation in a health management program by: 1) identifying important ambitions, goals and subjective well-being among farmers, 2) submitting those data to a quantitative analysis thereby characterizing perspective(s) of value added by health management programs among farmers; and 3) to characterize perceptions of farmers' goals among veterinarians.

Methods

The subject was initially explored by means of literature, interviews and discussions with farmers, herd health management consultants and researchers to provide an understanding (a concourse) of the research entity. The concourse was then broken down into 46 statements. Sixteen Danish dairy farmers and 18 veterinarians associated with one large nationwide veterinary practice were asked to rank the 46 statements that defined the concourse. Next, a principal component analysis was applied to identify correlated statements and thus families of perspectives between respondents. Q-methodology was utilized to represent each of the statements by one row and each respondent by one column in the matrix. A subset of the farmers participated in a series of semi-structured interviews to face validate the concourse and to discuss subjects like animal welfare, veterinarians' competences as experienced by the farmers and time constraints in the farmers' everyday life.

Results

Farmers' views could be described by four families of perspectives: Teamwork, Animal welfare, Knowledge dissemination, and Production. Veterinarians believed that farmers' primary focus was on production and profit, however, farmers' valued teamwork and animal welfare more.

Conclusion

The veterinarians in this study appear to focus too much on financial performance and increased production when compared to most of the participating farmers' expectations. On the other hand veterinarians did not focus enough on the major products, which farmers really wanted to buy, i.e. teamwork and animal welfare. Consequently, disciplines like sociology, economics and marketing may offer new methodological approaches to veterinarians as these disciplines have understood that accounting for individual differences is central to motivate change, i.e. 'know thy customer'.     

Characteristics of Shelter-Relinquished Animals and Their Owners Compared With Animals and Their Owners in U.S. Pet-Owning Households

Animal shelters in the United States annually receive millions of relinquished dogs and cats, and risk factors for relinquishment are not fully understood. Investigators sponsored by the National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy interviewed people who relinquished dogs and cats at 12 shelters in four regions. We collected similar data from a sample of U.S. households with companion animals. Data collected included nonhuman animal characteristics such as age, sex, and frequency of selected behaviors. We also obtained data on keepers' (owners') age, sex, and level of education as well as their general knowledge of pet care and behavior. We found that relinquishment was associated with physical and behavioral characteristics of the animals and owner characteristics and knowledge. Relinquished animals were more likely to be intact, younger, and mixed bred. People relinquishing animals were significantly more likely to be men and younger than 35 years. Duration of ownership was significantly shorter for relinquished animals.