Companion Animals as Selfobjects

ABSTRACT

This research examined whether self psychology could be systematically applied to human–animal relationships. Twenty-four semi-structured interviews were conducted, which consisted of 16 questions designed to illuminate selfobject needs. The interviews were intended to identify whether the horse/dog/cat/rabbit was a selfobject, that is, a provider of self-cohesion, self esteem, calmness, soothing, and acceptance, for the participant and, if so, whether the primary type(s) of selfobject was mirroring, idealizing, or twinship. Results revealed that self psychology could be applied successfully to human–animal relationships, that it could usually be determined whether the animal served a selfobject function, and that selfobject type was generally able to be established. In this sample, animals rivaled and even surpassed humans in their ability to provide important selfobject needs.     

The Attachment of People to Companion Animals

ABSTRACT

This article examines whether the human-companion animal relation, and in particular attachment, can be explained and understood with the help of attachment theory and the “internal working model.” The (perceived) social support and responsivity of the human-animal bond and how these relate to the attachment theory are also discussed.

The research, however, found only weak relationships between owning a companion animal and attachment. Other factors that could influence the attachment of owners toward their animals are discussed.     

Companion Animals in Obituaries: An Exploratory Study

ABSTRACT

The benefits of human–animal interaction have been discussed extensively in the literature. In this paper we take a slightly different strategy in documenting that some humans acknowledge the importance of pets by actually referring to them in human obituaries. We begin with a brief overview of the human obituary, followed by the potential for pets as fictive kin to be named as survivors in obituaries. A bi-national, exploratory, content analysis of companion animal (CA)-related content in published newspaper obituaries is reported. The two criteria for inclusion were that a pet or pet survivors be named in the obituary or that donations be made to a pet-related charity. Of the 11,818 obituaries in three newspapers over a three-month period, 260 (2.2%) met one or both of these criteria. Five themes emerged within obituaries containing CA data. First, the word “pet” was rarely used. CAs were typically listed as survivors along with human family members. Second, terms of endearment were consistently used to describe animal companions left behind. Third, some family members, who likely crafted these last statements about their loved ones, engaged in a personification of (and projections onto) the animals left behind. Fourth, there was variation in the roles played by each person with their animal companion. And fifth, donations were made to a wide variety of animal charities. The possibility of CAs as fictive kin is explored, in addition to a call for further study.     

Companion Animals and other Factors Affecting Young Children's Development

ABSTRACT

This study focuses on three factors presumed to affect young children's development: their age, the quality of their home environments, and the child-pet relationship. Three sets of analyses are presented: effects associated with pet ownership (pet presence), effects associated with the strength of the child-pet relationship, and the combined effects of age, home environment, and the child-companion animal relationship. This study includes both a parent survey (n = 88) and in-home assessments (n = 44) of the three- to six-year-old children. The analyses support the hypothesis that normal preschool children's intellectual, motor, and social development is associated with the presence of a companion animal and increases with their age, the quality of their home environment, and their relationship with a companion animal. While the children's age and the quality of their home environments were associated with measures of the children's cognitive, motor, and social development, the companion animal effect was limited to the young children's social development including their empathy for other children.     

克隆和动物克隆

１９９７年２月２３日,英国苏格兰爱丁堡罗斯林研究所Ｗｉｌｍｕｔ和Ｃａｍｐｂｅｌ领导的研究小组,用高度分化的乳腺细胞成功克隆绵羊的消息在英国《Ｎａｔｕｒｅ》杂志发表后,在全世界引起轰动［１］。由于哺乳动物的克隆成功,人的克隆已出现成功的可能,因此已引起...     

Testing Refrigeration Trucks for the Emergency Evacuation of Companion Animals

The purpose of this study was to quantify the changes in oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) in sealed refrigerator trucks scheduled to be used for transporting companion animals (dogs and cats) during an emergency evacuation. A total of 122 nonhuman animals (total weight = 1,248 kg) housed in individual crates were loaded into a 16-m refrigeration truck. Once they were loaded, the doors were closed and the percentages of O₂ and CO₂ were measured every 5 min by O₂ and CO₂ analyzers, and they were used to quantify the changes in gas pressure in the sealed truck. CO₂ had a much higher-than-predicted increase, and O₂ had a higher-than-predicted decrease. These 2 pressures in combination with the functionality of the respiratory system will limit the animal's ability to load O₂, and over time, they will initiate asphyxia or suffocation. Over time, the partial pressure of oxygen (P_O2) in the sealed truck will decrease, causing hypoxia, and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (P_CO2) will increase, causing hypercapnia.     

Companion Animals and Wellbeing When Living with HIV in Australia

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of companion animals on wellbeing amongst individuals living with HIV in Australia. It was hypothesized that participants living with a companion animal would report greater emotional wellbeing than those who did not. It was also hypothesized that participants reporting a stronger attachment to their companion animal would report greater emotional wellbeing. A total of 128 participants (77 with companion animals and 51 without companion animals) were recruited through Australian AIDS Councils. All participants completed measures of HIV-related emotional wellbeing, perceived experiences of HIV-related unsupportive social interactions, selfassessed health, and socio-demographics. Those living with companion animals completed additional items about the animal, including the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS). Sample comparisons indicated that those living with a companion animal had significantly greater emotional wellbeing scores, and reported reduced experiences of HIV-related unsupportive social interactions, compared with those who did not. In addition, multiple regression analyses showed living with a companion animal to be predictive of emotional wellbeing. However, analysis of LAPS scores indicated greater attachment to a companion animal was significantly associated with reduced emotional wellbeing and self-assessed health, and increased reports of HIV-related unsupportive social interactions. It is proposed that some individuals facing increased negative HIV-related challenges may actively seek out a stronger attachment relationship with a companion animal in order to buffer these stressful life conditions. This study provides empirical support for the benefits that companion animals may offer some members of a potentially vulnerable or stigmatized population group, and reinforces the need to validate and support the human–animal relationship.     

Companion Animals and Loneliness: A Systematic Review of Quantitative Studies

ABSTRACT

The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate quantitative studies of companion animals and human loneliness. Five electronic databases (PubMed, Medline, Web of Science, Academic Search Premier, Psychlnfo) were searched for articles on companion animals (including animal-assisted therapies [AAT]) and human loneliness. Searches were not limited to a particular language or timeframe. Three randomized controlled studies (RCTs), one controlled study, one prospective cohort study, two longitudinal, and 14 cross-sectional studies satisfied all inclusion criteria and were each evaluated independently by both authors according to standardized criteria, with disagreements resolved by discussion. All except one study was underpowered. The methodological quality of the three RCTs was low, as measured on the Jadad scale. Eleven studies reported positive findings, of which five related to service dogs. While none of the positive studies provided convincing evidence that companion animals help to alleviate loneliness, there was promising evidence that AAT may do this (although effects may be due to aspects of the therapy rather than the animal). As further cross-sectional studies are unlikely to improve understanding of the role of companion animals on human loneliness, we suggest that there is a need for rigorous and adequately powered RCTs.     

Realistic Representations of Companion Animals in Comic Art in the USA

ABSTRACT

Comic art reflecting cultural and social values serves as social commentary. Cartoons and comics in the USA portraying dimensions of the human-companion animal bond, were examined to determine the realistic representational images depicting human-companion animal interaction. Content analysis resulted in three major categories reflecting realistic or quasi-realistic dimensions of our interaction with companion animals: endearing, obligatory/necessary, and nuisance/stressful. These three categories, with examples of cartoons, are discussed and placed within a theoretical context.     

A Scoping Review of Published Research on the Relinquishment of Companion Animals

Globally, large populations of companion animals are relinquished each year. The purpose of this scoping review was to identify all published research investigating companion-animal relinquishment to map out and evaluate research gaps, needs, and opportunities. A comprehensive search strategy was implemented in 4 online databases, identified citations were screened, and relevant articles were procured and characterized. From 6,848 unique citations identified, 192 were confirmed relevant, including 115 primary-research articles and 77 reviews and commentaries. The majority of these articles originated from the United States (131; 68.2%); 74 (38.5%) of them have been published since 2006. Among the primary-research articles, 84 (73.0%) investigated reasons for companion-animal relinquishment. The most commonly studied reasons were aggressive companion-animal behaviors (49; 58.3%); moving, rental, or housing issues (45; 53.6%); and caretaker personal issues (42; 50.0%). Only 17 primary-research articles investigated interventions to prevent companion-animal relinquishment. The quantity of research into reasons for relinquishment highlights an opportunity for future knowledge-synthesis activities in this area, including systematic review and meta-analysis. In comparison, the limited research into interventions identifies a priority for new research.     

Attitudes Toward Companion Animals Among Hispanic Residents of a Texas Border Community

The researchers surveyed 206 residents of a Hispanic community on the Texas-Mexico border about their behaviors and attitudes toward companion animals. Selected members of the community administered a telephone survey to a systematic random sample of 206 individuals. The majority of participants believed that free-roaming dogs were a problem in their community, and nearly 81% responded that these dogs sometimes prevented them from walking outdoors. About 24% of dog guardians sometimes let their nonhuman animals roam free in the streets. Most study participants believed it was a good idea to sterilize both male and female dogs and cats, but only 11% of respondents' dogs and 27% of cats were sterilized. About 62% of households chained dogs outdoors; persons with an elementary-level education were 7 times more likely to chain their dogs than those who had completed some high school. The Hispanic population of the United States is growing rapidly; to guide officials charged with protecting animal welfare and the public health, it will become increasingly important to understand Hispanics' attitudes and behaviors toward companion animals.     

Childhood Neglect,Attachment to Companion Animals,and Stuffed Animals as Attachment Objects in Women and Men

ABSTRACT

Childhood neglect has severe, pervasive, negative outcomes that often continue into adulthood. As a potential source of support for both children and adults, companion animals (pets) can both give and receive affection and therefore may be sources of healthy attachment for people who were raised in negative situations. Toy stuffed animals, in contrast, can only receive affection but may still be useful as transitional objects, particularly for people who experienced interpersonal neglect in childhood and who are in the midst of a transition away from the family home and into college. The current study examined the relationships among childhood neglect, companion animal attachment, and attachment to toy stuffed animals. Undergraduate participants (n = 457) from a large regional university answered questionnaires online. The first hypothesis, that self-reported childhood neglect would be positively related to attachment to companion animals, was supported for women only. Neglected women were more attached to companion animals than were non-neglected women, with a medium effect size. For men, there was no significant effect. The second hypothesis was that childhood neglect would be positively related to attachment to stuffed animals; this hypothesis was not supported. The third hypothesis, that women would be more attached to both companion animals and stuffed animals than would men, was supported. Attachment to companion animals and attachment to stuffed animals were positively related. Results are discussed within a framework of attachment and transitional objects as potential aids to therapy in people who were neglected in childhood.     

The Pets of Hurricane Matthew: Evacuation and Sheltering with Companion Animals

The purpose of this research was to understand the ways in which ownership of companion animals influences evacuation decision-making, using Hurricane Matthew of 2016 as a case study. Using stated-choice surveys, this research identifies behavioral decisions made during and after the evacuations associated with the hurricane, and details how decisions were made for different types of pets and the various stressors and problems encountered during the evacuation process. The data were collected via a web-based survey posted in pets’ interest and animal rescue groups following Hurricane Matthew. Respondents lived in Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Findings suggest that respondents had transportation logistics problems evacuating with their animals, and respondents with cats were more likely to leave some of their pets behind when they evacuated. Sheltering decisions and the wellbeing of pets also were themes identified from the data, especially as it relates to stress and attachment to animals. Implications from this research include a closer examination of how human–animal bonds can affect the ways in which evacuation and sheltering unfold. If humans have plans and access to resources for their pets during evacuations, they may be more likely to adhere to evacuation orders and to experience less stress throughout the process.     

Companion Animals in Natural Disasters: A Scoping Review of Scholarly Sources

During a disaster, people may make evacuation decisions based on their companion animal’s welfare, therefore exposing themselves, their companion animals, and emergency responders to increased risk for injury or death. The loss and suffering of companion animals in disasters causes deep distress, diminishing people’s capacity to rebuild their lives. This scoping review presents scholarly research studies and reviews relating to people and their companion animals in the context of disasters, with an aim of informing researchers, policymakers, and practitioners and providing direction for future research. Using the Arksey and O’Malley framework, articles in scholarly journals from 2004 to 2014 are discussed. Analysis included 38 articles: 20 research studies, 12 reviews, and 6 editorials. Findings revealed 2 central themes: companion animals as a risk factor to human health and safety and companion animals being “at risk” themselves. An emerging theme was “responsibility”: Who is responsible for companion animals in disasters and how? Understanding the implications of human–nonhuman animal relationships for disaster response and having a broader public consensus on what is owed to animals at times of emergency are important to community preparedness and resilience.     

The Influence of Companion Animals on Owner Perception: Gender and Species Effects

ABSTRACT

There is some evidence that the presence of a companion animal influences perceptions of the psychological attributes of its owner. The present study investigated how these effects vary by pet species and owner gender. A sample of 542 students rated slides of a man or woman accompanied by a cat, a dog or alone using 36 adjectives. These adjectives were subsequently grouped into four clusters labelled ‘Nice’, ‘Nasty’, ‘Style’ and ‘Action’. Statistical analyses revealed that the female target person was rated as significantly nicer, more stylish and more active with the dog than with the cat. The male target person was rated as nicer, more stylish and more active with the cat than the dog. This pattern was contrary to that hypothesized, which was based on traditional gender and human-pet stereotypes. Discussion focuses on the changing nature of gender stereotypes and the resulting complexity of owner-pet perceptions.     

Prevalence of Blastocystis in Shelter-Resident and Client-Owned Companion Animals in the US Pacific Northwest

Domestic dogs and cats are commonly infected with a variety of protozoan enteric parasites, including Blastocystis spp. In addition, there is growing interest in Blastocystis as a potential enteric pathogen, and the possible role of domestic and in-contact animals as reservoirs for human infection. Domestic animals in shelter environments are commonly recognized to be at higher risk for carriage of enteropathogens. The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of infection of shelter-resident and client-owned domestic dogs and cats with Blastocystis spp in the Pacific Northwest region of the USA. Fecal samples were collected from 103 shelter-resident dogs, 105 shelter-resident cats, 51 client-owned dogs and 52 client-owned cats. Blastocystis were detected and subtypes assigned using a nested PCR based on small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences. Shelter-resident animals were significantly more likely to test positive for Blastocystis (P<0.05 for dogs, P = 0.009 for cats). Sequence analysis indicated that shelter-resident animals were carrying a variety of Blastocystis subtypes. No relationship was seen between Blastocystis carriage and the presence of gastrointestinal disease signs in either dogs or cats. These data suggest that, as previously reported for other enteric pathogens, shelter-resident companion animals are a higher risk for carriage of Blastocystis spp. The lack of relationship between Blastocystis carriage and intestinal disease in shelter-resident animals suggests that this organism is unlikely to be a major enteric pathogen in these species.